@Article{Insel2008,
  author  = {Insel, Thomas R.},
  journal = {American Journal of Psychiatry},
  title   = {Assessing the economic costs of serious mental illness},
  year    = {2008},
  number  = {6},
  pages   = {663–665},
  volume  = {165},
  doi     = {10.1176/appi.ajp.2008.08030366},
  url     = {https://psychiatryonline.org/doi/abs/10.1176/appi.ajp.2008.08030366},
}

@Article{Wakschlag2019,
  author   = {Wakschlag, Lauren S. and Roberts, Megan Y. and Flynn, Rachel M. and Smith, Justin D. and Krogh-Jespersen, Sheila and Kaat, Aaron J. and Gray, Larry and Walkup, John and Marino, Bradley S. and Norton, Elizabeth S. and Davis, Matthew M.},
  journal  = {Journal of Clinical Child \& Adolescent Psychology},
  title    = {Future directions for early childhood prevention of mental disorders: {A} road map to mental health, earlier},
  year     = {2019},
  number   = {3},
  pages    = {539–554},
  volume   = {48},
  abstract = {Mental disorders are the predominant chronic diseases of youth, with substantial life span morbidity and mortality. A wealth of evidence demonstrates that the neurodevelopmental roots of common mental health problems are present in early childhood. Unfortunately, this has not been translated to systematic strategies for improving population-level mental health at this most malleable neurodevelopmental period. We lay out a translational Mental Health, Earlier road map as a key future direction for prevention of mental disorder. This paradigm shift aims to reduce population attributable risk of mental disorder emanating from early life, by preventing, attenuating, or delaying onset/course of chronic psychopathology via the promotion of self-regulation in early childhood within large-scale health care delivery systems. The Earlier Pillar rests on a ?science of when to worry? that (a) optimizes clinical assessment methods for characterizing probabilistic clinical risk beginning in infancy via deliberate incorporation of neurodevelopmental heterogeneity, and (b) universal primary-care-based screening targeting patterns of dysregulated irritability as a robust transdiagnostic marker of vulnerability to life span mental health problems. The core of the Healthier Pillar is provision of low-intensity selective intervention promoting self-regulation for young children with developmentally atypical patterns of irritability within an implementation science framework in pediatric primary care to ensure highest population impact and sustainability. These Mental Health, Earlier strategies hold much promise for transforming clinical outlooks and ensuring young children?s mental health and well-being in a manner that reverberates throughout the life span.},
  doi      = {10.1080/15374416.2018.1561296},
  url      = {https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2018.1561296},
}

﻿
@Book{APA2022,
  author    = {{American Psychiatric Association}},
  publisher = {American Psychiatric Publishing},
  title     = {{Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders} ({DSM-5-TR})},
  year      = {2022},
}

﻿
@Misc{WHO2022,
  author = {{World Health Organization}},
  title  = {{International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems} 11th revision (ICD-11)},
  year   = {2022},
  url    = {https://icd.who.int},
}

﻿
@InBook{Ackerman2013,
  author    = {Ackerman, Phillip L.},
  editor    = {Geisinger, Kurt F. and Carlson, Janet F. and Hansen, Jo-Ida C. and Kuncel, Nathan R. and Reise, Steven P. and Rodriguez, Michael C.},
  pages     = {119–132},
  publisher = {American Psychological Association},
  title     = {Assessment of intellectual functioning in adults},
  year      = {2013},
  address   = {Washington, DC, US},
  series    = {APA handbooks in psychology.},
  volume    = {2: Testing and assessment in clinical and counseling psychology},
  abstract  = {The intelligence of adults is fundamentally different in many ways from the intelligence of children and adolescents. There are several reasons for this distinction, and these are discussed in this chapter. The first part of the chapter presents a review of the modern development of tests of intelligence for children and how such tests were initially adapted for the assessment of adults. Next discussed are some of the early findings about adult intelligence, and how these related to later developments of theory and measures specifically designed to assess adult intelligence. In addition, major sources of modern empirical research and theory that inform the interpretations of adult intelligence measures are reviewed. In a final section, some enduring challenges associated with assessing intelligence in adults are described. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved)},
  booktitle = {APA handbook of testing and assessment in psychology},
  doi       = {10.1037/14048-008},
  keywords  = {*Adult Development *Cognitive Ability *Cognitive Assessment *Intelligence Intelligence Measures},
}

﻿
@Article{Abrous2026,
  author   = {Abrous, Djoher Nora and Blin, Nicolas and Boraxbekk, Carl-Johan and Catheline, Gwenaelle and Fitzsimons, Carlos P. and Hilscher, Markus and Lemoine, Maël and Lopes, Luísa V. and Maass, Anne and Nilsson, Mats and Nyberg, Lars and Rasmussen, Lene Juel and Remondes, Miguel and Sauvage, Magdalena and Schreiber, Stefanie and Wolbers, Thomas},
  journal  = {Ageing Research Reviews},
  title    = {Hallmarks of healthy cognitive aging: {Inter-individual} differences in aging trajectories},
  year     = {2026},
  pages    = {103102},
  volume   = {119},
  abstract = {Cognitive aging is a highly heterogeneous process, with some individuals preserving stable cognitive performance across the lifespan while others exhibiting pronounced decline. This marked interindividual variability indicates that chronological age alone is a poor predictor of cognitive health. Rather than reflecting uniform degeneration, cognitive aging emerges from divergent biological trajectories spanning molecular, cellular, and network levels. In this review, we synthesize emerging biological hallmarks of healthy cognitive aging, emphasizing studies that characterize longitudinal cognitive trajectories in humans or distinguish aged individuals who retain learning capacity from those who do not. We focus on the medial temporal lobe, a region critical for episodic memory and spatial navigation, and examine how variability in its integrity contributes to distinct cognitive outcomes. Across species, convergent evidence suggests that cognitive decline is more closely linked to alterations in network regulation and synaptic plasticity than to overt neuronal loss. We identify key mechanisms shaping individual trajectories, including large-scale network organization, excitation–inhibition balance, neuromodulatory tone, glial and vascular regulation, adult hippocampal neurogenesis, and cellular homeostasis. These processes operate within an interconnected system in which disruptions in core regulatory mechanisms can propagate across levels of organization. Together, this synthesis supports a system-level framework in which cognitive resilience depends on the preservation of coordinated network dynamics. We advocate for longitudinal, multidimensional approaches to identify early shifts in regulatory balance and inform strategies to maintain cognitive function across the lifespan.},
  doi      = {10.1016/j.arr.2026.103102},
  keywords = {Cognitive Aging Inter-individual differences Medial temporal lobe Episodic Memory Spatial memory Hallmarks},
  url      = {https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1568163726000942},
}

﻿
@Article{Godoy2021,
  author   = {de Godoy, Laiz Laura and Alves, Cesar Augusto Pinheiro Ferreira and Saavedra, Juan Sebastian Martin and Studart-Neto, Adalberto and Nitrini, Ricardo and da Costa Leite, Claudia and Bisdas, Sotirios},
  journal  = {Neuroradiology},
  title    = {Understanding brain resilience in superagers: {A} systematic review},
  year     = {2021},
  number   = {5},
  pages    = {663–683},
  volume   = {63},
  abstract = {Superagers are older adults presenting excellent memory performance that may reflect resilience to the conventional pathways of aging. Our contribution aims to shape the evidence body of the known distinctive biomarkers of superagers and their connections with the Brain and Cognitive Reserve and Brain Maintenance concepts.},
  doi      = {10.1007/s00234-020-02562-1},
  url      = {https://doi.org/10.1007/s00234-020-02562-1},
}

﻿
@Article{Patterson1993,
  author  = {Patterson, Gerald R.},
  journal = {Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology},
  title   = {Orderly change in a stable world: {The} antisocial trait as a chimera},
  year    = {1993},
  number  = {6},
  pages   = {911–919},
  volume  = {61},
  doi     = {10.1037/0022-006X.61.6.911},
}

﻿
@Article{Miller2009,
  author   = {Miller, Jessie L. and Vaillancourt, Tracy and Boyle, Michael H.},
  journal  = {Social Development},
  title    = {Examining the heterotypic continuity of aggression using teacher reports: {Results} from a national {Canadian} study},
  year     = {2009},
  note     = {Miller, Jessie L. Vaillancourt, Tracy 1 Boyle, Michael H. 1; Affiliation: 1: McMaster University; Source Info: Feb2009, Vol. 18 Issue 1, p164; Subject Term: AGGRESSION (Psychology) in children; Subject Term: TEACHER-student relationships; Subject Term: GENDER differences (Psychology); Subject Term: STUDENTS -- Psychology; Subject Term: PEER relations; Subject Term: STUDENTS -- Rating of; Author-Supplied Keyword: measurement invariance; Author-Supplied Keyword: physical and direct aggression; Author-Supplied Keyword: sex differences in aggression; Author-Supplied Keyword: teacher reports; Number of Pages: 17p; Illustrations: 1 Diagram, 5 Charts; Document Type: Article},
  number   = {1},
  pages    = {164–180},
  volume   = {18},
  abstract = {This study examined the heterotypic continuity of aggression hypothesis (physical to indirect) using independent teacher reports of aggression drawn from a nationally representative sample of 749 Canadian girls and boys. Confirmatory factor analysis using an accelerated longitudinal design confirmed a two-factor model of physical and indirect aggression that was stable across time, but not sex. Mean levels of indirect aggression were highest for girls whereas mean levels of physical aggression were highest for boys. Results of a series of path analyses indicated statistically significant cross-lagged effects that varied by sex. Physical aggression at Time 1 (T1; aged six to nine years) significantly predicted increased levels of indirect aggression at Time 2 (T2; girls only) and Time 3 (T3; boys and girls). Indirect aggression at T1 predicted decreased physical aggression at T2 (boys only) and at T3 (boys and girls). These results offer support for the heterotypic continuity of aggression and underscore the usefulness of teacher reports in studies of childhood aggression. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]
Copyright of Social Development is the property of Wiley-Blackwell and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)},
  doi      = {10.1111/j.1467-9507.2008.00480.x},
  keywords = {AGGRESSION (Psychology) in children TEACHER-student relationships GENDER differences (Psychology) STUDENTS -- Psychology PEER relations STUDENTS -- Rating of measurement invariance physical and direct aggression sex differences in aggression teacher reports},
  url      = {http://ezproxy.lib.indiana.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=36077531&site=ehost-live&scope=site},
}

﻿
@Article{Petersen2026a,
  author  = {Petersen, Isaac T. and Demko, Zachary and Lee, Won-Chan and Oleson, Jacob J.},
  journal = {JAACAP Open},
  title   = {Studying development of psychopathology using changing measures to account for heterotypic continuity},
  year    = {2026},
  note    = {PsyArXiv Preprint: https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/p4kgw_v3},
  number  = {1},
  pages   = {111–123},
  volume  = {4},
  doi     = {10.1016/j.jaacop.2025.10.008},
}

﻿
@InBook{Sroufe2016,
  author    = {Sroufe, L Alan},
  editor    = {Cassidy, J. and Shaver, P.},
  pages     = {997–1011},
  publisher = {Guilford},
  title     = {The place of attachment in development},
  year      = {2016},
  address   = {New York, NY, US},
  volume    = {3},
  booktitle = {Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications},
}

﻿
@Article{Petersen2020,
  author   = {Petersen, Isaac T. and Choe, Daniel Ewon and LeBeau, Brandon},
  journal  = {Developmental Review},
  title    = {Studying a moving target in development: {The} challenge and opportunity of heterotypic continuity},
  year     = {2020},
  pages    = {100935},
  volume   = {58},
  abstract = {Many psychological constructs show heterotypic continuity—their behavioral manifestations change with development but their meaning remains the same (e.g., externalizing problems). However, research has paid little attention to how to account for heterotypic continuity. Conceptual and methodological challenges of heterotypic continuity may prevent researchers from examining lengthy developmental spans. Developmental theory requires that measurement accommodate changes in manifestation of constructs. Simulation and empirical work demonstrate that failure to account for heterotypic continuity when collecting or analyzing longitudinal data results in faulty developmental inferences. Accounting for heterotypic continuity may require using different measures across time with approaches that link measures on a comparable scale. Creating a developmental scale (i.e., developmental scaling) is recommended to link measures across time and account for heterotypic continuity, which is crucial in understanding development across the lifespan. The current synthesized review defines heterotypic continuity, describes how to identify it, and presents solutions to account for it. We note challenges of addressing heterotypic continuity, and propose steps in leveraging opportunities it creates to advance empirical study of development.},
  doi      = {10.1016/j.dr.2020.100935},
  keywords = {Heterotypic continuity Changing measures Longitudinal Construct validity invariance Developmental scaling Factorial invariance},
  url      = {http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273229720300411},
}

﻿
@Article{Petersen2018,
  author   = {Petersen, Isaac T. and Lindhiem, Oliver and LeBeau, Brandon and Bates, John E. and Pettit, Gregory S. and Lansford, Jennifer E. and Dodge, Kenneth A.},
  journal  = {Developmental Psychology},
  title    = {Development of internalizing problems from adolescence to emerging adulthood: {Accounting} for heterotypic continuity with vertical scaling},
  year     = {2018},
  number   = {3},
  pages    = {586–599},
  volume   = {54},
  abstract = {Manifestations of internalizing problems, such as specific symptoms of anxiety and depression, can change across development, even if individuals show strong continuity in rank-order levels of internalizing problems. This illustrates the concept of heterotypic continuity, and raises the question of whether common measures might be construct-valid for one age but not another. This study examines mean-level changes in internalizing problems across a long span of development at the same time as accounting for heterotypic continuity by using age-appropriate, changing measures. Internalizing problems from age 14–24 were studied longitudinally in a community sample (N = 585), using Achenbach’s Youth Self-Report (YSR) and Young Adult Self-Report (YASR). Heterotypic continuity was evaluated with an item response theory (IRT) approach to vertical scaling, linking different measures over time to be on the same scale, as well as with a Thurstone scaling approach. With vertical scaling, internalizing problems peaked in mid-to-late adolescence and showed a group-level decrease from adolescence to early adulthood, a change that would not have been seen with the approach of using only age-common items. Individuals’ trajectories were sometimes different than would have been seen with the common-items approach. Findings support the importance of considering heterotypic continuity when examining development and vertical scaling to account for heterotypic continuity with changing measures. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2017 APA, all rights reserved)},
  doi      = {10.1037/dev0000449},
  url      = {http://psycnet.apa.org/record/2017-51820-001},
}

﻿
@Article{Weems2008,
  author   = {Weems, Carl F.},
  journal  = {Developmental Review},
  title    = {Developmental trajectories of childhood anxiety: Identifying continuity and change in anxious emotion},
  year     = {2008},
  number   = {4},
  pages    = {488–502},
  volume   = {28},
  abstract = {This paper outlines a way for thinking about continuity and change in childhood anxiety symptoms. Considerations for a model of continuity and change in anxious emotion are discussed first. Then, a perspective which may resolve inconsistencies across studies on the stability of childhood anxiety problems overtime is presented. The perspective views dysregulation of the anxiety response system and distress/negative affect as the core primary and necessary features of maladaptive anxious emotion and views the disorder-specific symptoms (generalized anxiety disorder, social phobia, separation anxiety, panic disorder, and simple phobia) as secondary characteristics of maladaptive anxious emotion. The perspective emphasizes ordered complexity in the developmental expression of anxious emotion, and delineates expectations for continuity and change in the features of anxious emotion by describing major normative trajectories across childhood and positing multiple sub-trajectories.},
  doi      = {10.1016/j.dr.2008.01.001},
  keywords = {Anxious Emotion Childhood Trajectory Anxiety disorder},
  url      = {http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273229708000026},
}

﻿
@Article{Weiss2003,
  author   = {Weiss, Bahr and Garber, Judy},
  journal  = {Development and Psychopathology},
  title    = {Developmental differences in the phenomenology of depression},
  year     = {2003},
  number   = {2},
  pages    = {403–430},
  volume   = {15},
  abstract = {Most researchers and clinicians now agree that children and adolescents are able to develop depressive disorders, and there also appears to be consensus that developmental level has relatively little influence on the phenomenology of the depression. The present paper examines the validity of this latter assumption from methodological, theoretical, and empirical perspectives. We first review reasons why there might be developmental differences in the symptoms that define depression, and then discuss the implications and significance if such differences do or do not exist. Next, we highlight methodological and design issues relevant to the appropriate evaluation of this question. Then, we propose that this broad developmental question actually is comprised of two subquestions—one focusing on symptoms and the other focused at the syndrome level—that have not yet been clearly differentiated in the field. Finally, after conducting a meta-analysis of the current empirical literature and reviewing its limitations, recommendations are made regarding future research in this area.},
  doi      = {10.1017/S0954579403000221},
  url      = {https://www.cambridge.org/core/article/developmental-differences-in-the-phenomenology-of-depression/5E4CD649EF933ECEA20477E50DB4CE64},
}

﻿
@Article{Rutter2006,
  author   = {Rutter, Michael and Kim-Cohen, Julia and Maughan, Barbara},
  journal  = {Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry},
  title    = {Continuities and discontinuities in psychopathology between childhood and adult life},
  year     = {2006},
  number   = {3-4},
  pages    = {276–295},
  volume   = {47},
  abstract = {The possible mechanisms involved in continuities and discontinuities in psychopathology between childhood and adult life are considered in relation to the findings from systematic, prospective, long-term longitudinal studies. Findings on schizophrenia, neurodevelopmental disorders, emotional disturbances, antisocial behaviour and substance abuse are used as conditions illustrating the key issues. The overarching themes are then discussed in relation to heterotypic continuity and psychopathologic progression, early age at onset and a range of possible mediating mechanisms – including genetic mediation, ‘kindling’ effects, environmental influences, coping mechanisms and cognitive processing of experiences. Some of the key research challenges that remain concern the testing of competing hypotheses on mediating processes, the changes involved in adolescence, the transition from prodromal phase to overt schizophrenia and the emergence of adolescent-limited antisocial behaviour. Greater use needs to be made of genetic research strategies and of the testing of possible cognitive processing mediation effects.},
  doi      = {10.1111/j.1469-7610.2006.01614.x},
  url      = {https://acamh.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2006.01614.x},
}

﻿
@Article{Applegate2026,
  author   = {Applegate, Brooks and Lahey, Benjamin B.},
  journal  = {JCPP Advances},
  title    = {Mapping persistence and change in psychological problems during the transition to adolescence: {Adding}, subtracting, shifting, and persisting},
  year     = {2026},
  number   = {2},
  pages    = {e70043},
  volume   = {6},
  abstract = {Abstract Background Recent developmental models posited that general tendencies to exhibit psychological problems are relatively stable, but specific problems change frequently. We need comprehensive descriptions of persistence and change in psychological problems before advancing such theories, however. Methods Data from four annual assessments of 9806 children (ages 9–10 years at baseline) in the Adolescent Behavior Cognitive Development Study™ were used to quantify persistence and change in each of 10 parent-rated specific psychological problems. Results Novel pairwise analyses revealed that the persistence of psychological problems over 1–3 years was common, but behavior change in the sense that problem x1 at baseline desisted and was replaced by a new problem y2 at follow-up was uncommon. The only relatively common changes in behavior over time involved adding a new problem (i.e., x1 at baseline followed by x2 + y2 at follow-up) or subtracting a problem (i.e., x1 + y1 at baseline followed by only y2 at follow-up). Conclusions If confirmed across other measures and developmental epochs, these findings challenge a key postulate of current theories that the developmental course of psychological problems involves frequent replacement of one problem by another.},
  doi      = {10.1002/jcv2.70043},
  url      = {https://acamh.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/jcv2.70043},
}

﻿
@Article{Petersen2024,
  author  = {Petersen, Isaac T.},
  journal = {Developmental Psychology},
  title   = {Reexamining developmental continuity and discontinuity in the 21st century: {Better} aligning behaviors, functions, and mechanisms},
  year    = {2024},
  note    = {Preprint on PsyArXiv: https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/ghkm6},
  number  = {11},
  pages   = {1992–2007},
  volume  = {60},
  doi     = {10.1037/dev0001657},
}

﻿
@InBook{Caspi2006,
  author    = {Caspi, Avshalom and Shiner, Rebecca L.},
  editor    = {Eisenberg, Nancy and Damon, William and Lerner, Richard M.},
  pages     = {300–365},
  publisher = {John Wiley & Sons, Inc.},
  title     = {Personality development},
  year      = {2006},
  address   = {Hoboken, NJ, US},
  edition   = {6th},
  volume    = {3},
  abstract  = {The goal of this chapter is to summarize current knowledge about the development of individual differences in temperament and personality from childhood through adulthood. The chapter is divided into seven sections. The first two sections describe the most salient temperament and personality traits across the lifespan and offer a process-focused analysis of those traits, including their early antecedents and psychological and biological underpinnings. The third and fourth sections explore how early-emerging temperamental differences become elaborated into personality differences and summarize research evidence about the genetic and environmental origins of these differences. The fifth and sixth sections review new and accumulating evidence about continuities in personality development from childhood to adulthood and the influence of personality on life outcomes. The seventh section explores the connections between temperament and personality traits and psychopathology.},
  booktitle = {Handbook of child psychology},
  doi       = {10.1002/9780470147658.chpsy0306},
  keywords  = {childhood development genetics personality development personality processes personality traits psychopathology temperament},
}

﻿
@Article{Cicchetti2002,
  author  = {Cicchetti, Dante and Rogosch, Fred A.},
  journal = {Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology},
  title   = {A developmental psychopathology perspective on adolescence},
  year    = {2002},
  note    = {Definitions: heterotypic continuity},
  number  = {1},
  pages   = {6–20},
  volume  = {70},
  doi     = {10.1037/0022-006X.70.1.6},
}

﻿
@Article{Borelli2018,
  author  = {Borelli, Wyllians Vendramini and Carmona, Karoline Carvalho and Studart-Neto, Adalberto and Nitrini, Ricardo and Caramelli, Paulo and Costa, Jaderson Costa da},
  journal = {Dementia & Neuropsychologia},
  title   = {Operationalized definition of older adults with high cognitive performance},
  year    = {2018},
  number  = {3},
  pages   = {221–227},
  volume  = {12},
  doi     = {10.1590/1980-57642018dn12-030001},
}

﻿
@Article{Odgers2008,
  author   = {Odgers, Candice L. and Moffitt, Terrie E. and Broadbent, Jonathan M. and Dickson, Nigel and Hancox, Robert J. and Harrington, Honalee and Poulton, Richie and Sears, Malcolm R. and Thomson, W. Murray and Caspi, Avshalom},
  journal  = {Development and Psychopathology},
  title    = {Female and male antisocial trajectories: {From} childhood origins to adult outcomes},
  year     = {2008},
  number   = {2},
  pages    = {673–716},
  volume   = {20},
  abstract = {This article reports on the childhood origins and adult outcomes of female versus male antisocial behavior trajectories in the Dunedin longitudinal study. Four antisocial behavior trajectory groups were identified among females and males using general growth mixture modeling and included life-course persistent (LCP), adolescent-onset, childhood-limited, and low trajectory groups. During childhood, both LCP females and males were characterized by social, familial and neurodevelopmental risk factors, whereas those on the adolescent-onset pathway were not. At age 32, women and men on the LCP pathway were engaging in serious violence and experiencing significant mental health, physical health, and economic problems. Females and males on the adolescent-onset pathway were also experiencing difficulties at age 32, although to a lesser extent. Although more males than females followed the LCP trajectory, findings support similarities across gender with respect to developmental trajectories of antisocial behavior and their associated childhood origins and adult consequences. Implications for theory, research, and practice are discussed.},
  doi      = {10.1017/S0954579408000333},
  url      = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0954579408000333},
}

﻿
@Article{Sterba2007,
  author   = {Sterba, Sonya K. and Prinstein, Mitchell J. and Cox, Martha J.},
  journal  = {Development and Psychopathology},
  title    = {Trajectories of internalizing problems across childhood: {Heterogeneity}, external validity, and gender differences},
  year     = {2007},
  number   = {2},
  pages    = {345–366},
  volume   = {19},
  abstract = {Developmental psychopathology theory speaks to the existence of early-manifesting internalizing problems with a heterogeneous longitudinal course. However, the course of internalizing problems has been investigated largely from late childhood onward, with methods that assume children's problem trajectories vary more so in rate than in qualitative functional form. This can obscure heterogeneity in symptom process and course, obscure onset of early gender differences in internalizing problems, and obscure the relevance of early sociocontextual risks for long-term internalizing outcomes. The present study addressed these issues by using person-oriented (latent growth mixture) methods to model heterogeneity in maternal-reported internalizing symptoms from age 2 to 11 years (N = 1,364). Three latent trajectory classes were supported for each gender: two-thirds of children followed a low-stable trajectory; smaller proportions followed decreasing/increasing or elevated-stable trajectories. Although the number, shape, and predictive validity of internalizing trajectory classes were similar across gender, trajectory classes' initial values and rates of change varied significantly across gender, as did the impact of maternal postpartum depression and anxiety on latent growth factors. Extracted latent trajectories were differentially predicted by postpartum maternal psychopathology, and themselves, in several respects, differentially predicted self-reported depressive symptoms in preadolescence. However, discussion focuses on the need for further external validation of extracted latent classes.The authors thank Daniel J. Bauer for his insightful comments on earlier versions of this manuscript.},
  doi      = {10.1017/S0954579407070174},
  url      = {https://www.cambridge.org/core/article/trajectories-of-internalizing-problems-across-childhood-heterogeneity-external-validity-and-gender-differences/8B851BE0D13BAB1EF4AB5771565EABF7},
}

﻿
@InBook{BriggsGowan2016,
  author    = {Briggs-Gowan, Margaret J. and Godoy, Leandra and Heberle, Amy and Carter, Alice S.},
  editor    = {Cicchetti, Dante},
  pages     = {1–45},
  title     = {Assessment of psychopathology in young children},
  year      = {2016},
  volume    = {1: Theory and method},
  abstract  = {Abstract There has been tremendous change in young children's mental health over the past 20 years. Early childhood (0–5 years) is now recognized as a crucial period for the development of self-regulation, a critical set of competencies that have implications for adaptive functioning in school and through the life span. As the field presses forward to address the mental health needs of young children, success will be optimized by a well-informed assessment approach. This chapter reviews important issues for consideration when planning assessments with young children: (1) contextual factors, including the caregiving environments (e.g., home, child care, early education environments), caregiver influences on social-emotional functioning and assessment, recent changes in family structure or contextual stressors, and sociocultural factors; (2) children's functioning in other developmental domains, including language, cognition, adaptive functioning, health, and sensory; (3) the goals and purposes of the assessment and evaluation setting; (4) psychometric issues, including reliability, validity, developmental sensitivity, and cultural validity; and (5) interpretation of the whole child in relation to contextual and developmental factors and evaluation of impairment. A primary goal is to help clinicians and researchers determine the most suitable measures from a wide array of parent and other caregiver reports and observational and direct assessment measures. A variety of assessments that have demonstrated acceptable reliability and validity in young children, including screening instruments, comprehensive dimensional assessments, and psychiatric diagnostic interviews, are reviewed. Finally, ongoing challenges, future directions, and exciting opportunities in research and clinical applications in early childhood assessment are discussed.},
  booktitle = {Developmental Psychopathology},
  doi       = {10.1002/9781119125556.devpsy101},
}

﻿
@Article{Broeren2013,
  author   = {Broeren, Suzanne and Muris, Peter and Diamantopoulou, Sofia and Baker, Jess R.},
  journal  = {Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology},
  title    = {The course of childhood anxiety symptoms: {Developmental} trajectories and child-related factors in normal children},
  year     = {2013},
  number   = {1},
  pages    = {81–95},
  volume   = {41},
  abstract = {This three-wave longitudinal study explored developmental trajectories for various types of childhood anxiety symptoms (i.e., specific fears, social anxiety, generalized anxiety, and separation anxiety) and examined how these trajectories were associated with several factors thought to be involved in the pathogenesis of anxiety. Parents of a community sample of 224 children aged 4 to 11 years repeatedly completed a standardized questionnaire of anxiety symptoms during a 2-year period. At Time 1, parents also filled out scales for measuring children’s level of behavioral inhibition (BI), internalizing and externalizing symptoms, and prosocial behaviors, while an interview was conducted with children to assess Theory-of-Mind (TOM) ability. Growth Mixture Modeling identified multiple developmental trajectories in childhood anxiety symptoms of which the ‘stable-low’ or ‘stable-medium’ reflected the normative trajectories. Further, multinomial regression analyses indicated that the higher developmental trajectories of anxiety were associated with higher levels of BI and internalizing symptoms at Time 1. In sum, results show heterogeneity in the development of anxiety symptoms and underline the importance of early prevention programs for children at high risk for developing an anxiety disorder.},
  doi      = {10.1007/s10802-012-9669-9},
  url      = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10802-012-9669-9},
}

﻿
@Article{Petersen2021a,
  author  = {Petersen, Isaac T. and LeBeau, Brandon and Choe, Daniel E.},
  journal = {Child Development},
  title   = {Creating a developmental scale to account for heterotypic continuity in development: {A} simulation study},
  year    = {2021},
  number  = {1},
  pages   = {e1–e19},
  volume  = {92},
  doi     = {10.1111/cdev.13433},
  url     = {https://osf.io/ewmzd},
}

﻿@article{Chen2015,
   author = {Chen, Frances R. and Jaffee, Sara R.},
   title = {The heterogeneity in the development of homotypic and heterotypic antisocial behavior},
   journal = {Journal of Developmental and Life-Course Criminology},
   volume = {1},
   number = {3},
   pages = {269–288},
   doi = {10.1007/s40865-015-0012-3},
   url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s40865-015-0012-3},
   abstract = {This study aimed to contribute to the existing literature by testing whether the same classes of antisocial behavior typically uncovered in the literature would be revealed with the additional information about heterotypic antisocial behavior. We investigated the development of men’s antisocial behavior in its homotypic and heterotypic forms from age 12 to 30 years in a large representative sample.},
   year = {2015}
}

﻿
@Article{Schaeffer1991,
  author   = {Schaeffer, Nora Cate},
  journal  = {Public Opinion Quarterly},
  title    = {Hardly ever or constantly? {Group} comparisons using vague quantifiers},
  year     = {1991},
  number   = {3},
  pages    = {395–423},
  volume   = {55},
  abstract = {Investigations of vague quantifiers—phrases like “very often,” which express frequency in relative terms—have left the consequences of analyzing absolute or relative responses largely unexplored. This paper examines whether the choice of relative or absolute frequencies affects comparisons by race, sex, education, and age and the meaning of relative-frequency and relative-intensity phrases for these groups. Items analyzed are the frequency of excitement and boredom (using a 1975 national probability sample of households with quotas, N=1,172). Conclusions about race differences in excitement and boredom differ for absolute and relative frequencies. There are significant differences by race, education, and age in the meaning of phrases conveying relative frequency: such phrases stand for higher absolute frequencies for whites, for better educated, and for younger respondents.},
  doi      = {10.1086/269270},
  url      = {https://doi.org/10.1086/269270},
}

﻿
@Article{Schwarz1999,
  author   = {Schwarz, Norbert},
  journal  = {American Psychologist},
  title    = {Self-reports: {How} the questions shape the answers},
  year     = {1999},
  number   = {2},
  pages    = {93–105},
  volume   = {54},
  abstract = {Self-reports of behaviors and attitudes are strongly influenced by features of the research instrument, including question wording, format, and context. Recent research has addressed the underlying cognitive and communicative processes, which are systematic and increasingly well-understood. The author reviews what has been learned, focusing on issues of question comprehension, behavioral frequency reports, and the emergence of context effect in attitude measurement. The accumulating knowledge about the processes underlying self-reports promises to improve the questionnaire design and data quality. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2016 APA, all rights reserved)},
  doi      = {10.1037/0003-066X.54.2.93},
  keywords = {*Attitudes *Comprehension *Self-Report *Test Bias *Test Construction Behavior},
}

﻿
@Article{Paalman2013,
  author   = {Paalman, Carmen H. and Terwee, Caroline B. and Jansma, Elise P. and Jansen, Lucres M. C.},
  journal  = {PLOS ONE},
  title    = {Instruments measuring externalizing mental health problems in immigrant ethnic minority youths: {A} systematic review of measurement properties},
  year     = {2013},
  number   = {5},
  pages    = {e63109},
  volume   = {8},
  abstract = {Background Little is known about reliability and validity of instruments measuring externalizing mental health problems in immigrant ethnic minority youths. Aims To provide an overview of studies on measurement properties of instruments measuring these problems in immigrant ethnic minority youths, their methodological quality and results. Methods A systematic review of the literature in MEDLINE, EMbase, PsycINFO and Cochrane Library was performed. Evaluation of methodological quality of studies found was done by using the ‘COSMIN-checklist’. Full text, original articles, published in English after 1990 were included. Articles had to concern the development or evaluation of the measurement properties of self-reported, parent-reported and/or teacher- or clinician-reported questionnaires assessing or screening externalizing mental health problems in immigrant ethnic minority youths. Specific results of analyses on (an) immigrant ethnic minority group had to be given. Results Twenty-nine studies evaluating 18 instruments met our criteria. Most studies concerned instruments with known validity in Western populations, tested mainly in African Americans. Considering methodological quality, inequivalences between ethnicities were found, self-reports seemed to perform better, and administration of an instrument influenced reliability and validity. Conclusion It seems that the majority of instruments for assessing externalizing problems in immigrant ethnic minority youths is currently not sufficiently validated. Further evaluating existing instruments is crucial to accurately assess and interpreted externalizing problems in immigrant ethnic minority youths.},
  doi      = {10.1371/journal.pone.0063109},
  url      = {https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0063109},
}

﻿
@Article{Kaat2019,
  author   = {Kaat, Aaron J. and Blackwell, Courtney K. and Estabrook, Ryne and Burns, James L. and Petitclerc, Amelie and Briggs-Gowan, Margaret J. and Gershon, Richard C. and Cella, David and Perlman, Susan B. and Wakschlag, Lauren S.},
  journal  = {Journal of Child and Family Studies},
  title    = {Linking the {Child Behavior Checklist} ({CBCL}) with the {Multidimensional Assessment Profile of Disruptive Behavior} ({MAP-DB}): {Advancing} a dimensional spectrum approach to disruptive behavior},
  year     = {2019},
  number   = {2},
  pages    = {343–353},
  volume   = {28},
  abstract = {Disruptive behavior in childhood is common. It spans from normative child misbehaviors to clinically-significant and impairing problems. While there are many rating scales evaluating such behaviors, historically, measurement has emphasized counting the number of symptoms present rather than assessing the normal-abnormal spectrum of behavioral expression. This study uses data from 644 early school age children aggregated from two data sources to statistically link a commonly used symptom count measure, the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL), to a more developmentally-sensitive measure, the Multidimensional Assessment Profile of Disruptive Behavior (MAP-DB). Two links between conceptually similar scales on each measure were developed: CBCL Conduct Problems and MAP-DB Aggression; and CBCL Oppositional Defiant Problems and MAP-DB Temper Loss. We compared two innovative methods—Item Response Theory (IRT) and Deming regression—to determine the optimal linking relationship. Results suggest IRT methods were superior in reducing linking error compared to Deming regression. While Deming regression accurately modeled the mean scores (thus minimizing linking bias), this method could not adequately address the floor effect for scores on the CBCL. For practical purposes, this study provides a crosswalk of score conversions between the CBCL and MAP-DB, such that data aggregation and group comparisons can be made across the two measures; this enables longitudinal analyses with historically-collected CBCL data to transition to the more innovative dimensional scales of the MAP-DB without undo loss of extant data. This study furthers efforts to shift from historical symptom counts to more developmentally-sensitive measurement across the disruptive behaviors spectrum.},
  doi      = {10.1007/s10826-018-1272-4},
  url      = {https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-018-1272-4},
}

﻿
@Article{Tiego2023,
  author   = {Tiego, Jeggan and Martin, Elizabeth A. and DeYoung, Colin G. and Hagan, Kelsey and Cooper, Samuel E. and Pasion, Rita and Satchell, Liam and Shackman, Alexander J. and Bellgrove, Mark A. and Fornito, Alex and Abend, Rany and Goulter, Natalie and Eaton, Nicholas R. and Kaczkurkin, Antonia N. and Nusslock, Robin and {the HiTOP Neurobiological Foundations Work Group}},
  journal  = {Nature Mental Health},
  title    = {Precision behavioral phenotyping as a strategy for uncovering the biological correlates of psychopathology},
  year     = {2023},
  number   = {5},
  pages    = {304–315},
  volume   = {1},
  abstract = {Our capacity to measure diverse aspects of human biology has developed rapidly in the past decades, but the rate at which these techniques have generated insights into the biological correlates of psychopathology has lagged far behind. The slow progress is partly due to the poor sensitivity, specificity and replicability of many findings in the literature, which have in turn been attributed to small effect sizes, small sample sizes and inadequate statistical power. A commonly proposed solution is to focus on large, consortia-sized samples. Yet it is abundantly clear that increasing sample sizes will have a limited impact unless a more fundamental issue is addressed: the precision with which target behavioral phenotypes are measured. Here, we discuss challenges, outline several ways forward and provide worked examples to demonstrate key problems and potential solutions. A precision phenotyping approach can enhance the discovery and replicability of associations between biology and psychopathology.},
  doi      = {10.1038/s44220-023-00057-5},
  url      = {https://doi.org/10.1038/s44220-023-00057-5},
}

﻿
@Article{Pavlovich2026,
  author  = {Pavlovich, Kane and Tiego, Jeggan and Constable, Toby and Fornito, Alex and Monash Biomedical Imaging},
  journal = {Developmental Science},
  title   = {Assessing the psychometric properties of the {Child Behavior Checklist} in the {ABCD Study}},
  year    = {2026},
  number  = {4},
  pages   = {e70216},
  volume  = {29},
  doi     = {10.1111/desc.70216},
}

﻿
@Article{Tackett2022,
  author   = {Tackett, Jennifer L. and Hallquist, Michael},
  journal  = {Journal of Psychopathology and Clinical Science},
  title    = {The need to grow: {Developmental} considerations and challenges for modern psychiatric taxonomies},
  year     = {2022},
  note     = {The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology; The Journal of Abnormal Psychology; The Journal of Abnormal Psychology and Social Psychology. Partial author list: First Author & Affiliation: Tackett, Jennifer L.; Department of Psychology, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, US. Release Date: 20220728. Publication Type: Journal (0100), Peer Reviewed Journal (0110). Format Covered: Electronic. Document Type: Journal Article. Language: EnglishMajor Descriptor: Personality Development; Psychodiagnostic Typologies; Psychopathology; Risk Factors; Taxonomies. Minor Descriptor: Child Psychopathology; Etiology; Measurement; Models; Research Diagnostic Criteria. Classification: Psychological Disorders (3210). Population: Human (10). References Available: Y. Page Count: 4. Issue Publication Date: Aug, 2022. Publication History: Accepted Date: Jan 17, 2022; First Submitted Date: May 20, 2021. Copyright Statement: American Psychological Association. 2022.},
  number   = {6},
  pages    = {660–663},
  volume   = {131},
  abstract = {Recently proposed psychiatric taxonomies and classification systems, Research Domain Criteria (RDoC) and the Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology (HiTOP), aim to structure symptoms of psychopathology along a common set of dimensions. Hierarchical dimensional models of psychopathology are empirically supported and facilitate more productive research on disorder etiology and course. Lacking in these modern approaches, however, is a thoughtful integration of developmental context and considerations. In this brief commentary, we argue for (a) the importance of structural models of personality and psychopathology to advance an understanding of psychopathology development and etiology, (b) important considerations for measurement and assessment from a developmental perspective, and (c) the importance of taking more seriously the hard work of developmental taxonomic research. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved)
General Scientific Summary—Recent advances in reconceptualizing the classification of mental disorders offer a more scientifically informed approach that stands to accelerate our understanding of these problems. However, these systems have not yet integrated a developmental perspective, which we argue is important to incorporate psychopathology across the lifespan and account for the dynamic and changing nature of mental health problems. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved)},
  doi      = {10.1037/abn0000751},
  keywords = {development HiTOP RDoC risk factors structural models Personality Development Psychodiagnostic Typologies Psychopathology Taxonomies Child Psychopathology Etiology Measurement Models Research Diagnostic Criteria},
  url      = {https://login.proxy.lib.uiowa.edu/login?url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=ip,cookie,uid,url&db=pdh&AN=2022-84900-011
ORCID: 0000-0001-5894-8038
jennifer.tackett@northwestern.edu},
}

﻿
@Article{DeLosReyes2026,
  author   = {De Los Reyes, Andres},
  journal  = {Journal of Psychopathology and Clinical Science},
  title    = {Toward integrative, multisource, and multimodal approaches to assessing psychopathology intergenerationally and across the lifespan: {Commentary} on {Caspi} et al. (2026)},
  year     = {2026},
  number   = {4},
  pages    = {495–497},
  volume   = {135},
  abstract = {Models of psychopathology contain constructs that cannot be directly observed. Assessing these constructs involves identifying specific behaviors that justifiably serve as “markers” of their presence, thus facilitating their precise and accurate measurement. Examples of these behavioral markers include the destruction of property for conduct disorder, the avoidance of unfamiliar people for social anxiety, and sleeping too much or too little for depression. These and other behavioral markers typify the measurement of both specific mental disorders as well as “p” as a transdiagnostic index of psychopathology. Importantly, researchers commonly implement measurement, methodological, and data-analytic practices that conflict with the data conditions that underlie psychopathology studies. For example, researchers often rely on one source to measure behavioral markers of psychopathology (e.g., self-report), even though 60 years of research indicate that the measurement source robustly dictates the conclusions of psychopathology studies. When researchers measure markers of psychopathology with multiple sources, they often integrate these multisource data using data-analytic strategies that misclassify valid data as measurement error; these misclassifications beget underpowered studies and, by logical extension, replication failures. These issues pertain to psychopathology research more broadly, but they also facilitate interpreting Caspi et al. (see record 2026-80066-001), and the foundation it sets for studying psychopathology both developmentally and intergenerationally. In this commentary, I highlight measurement, methodological, and data-analytic issues inspired by Caspi et al. and summarize work that supports their careful consideration. Caspi et al.’s findings call for developing integrative, multisource, and multimodal assessments that optimize the validity of psychopathology assessments intergenerationally and across the lifespan. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2026 APA, all rights reserved)},
  doi      = {10.1037/abn0001084},
  keywords = {*Assessment *Classification (Cognitive Process) *Life Span *Psychodiagnostic Typologies *Psychopathology Tests and Measures},
}

﻿
@Article{Sivertsson2024,
  author   = {Sivertsson, Fredrik and Carlsson, Christoffer and Almquist, Ylva B. and Brännström, Lars},
  journal  = {Journal of Criminal Justice},
  title    = {Offending trajectories from childhood to retirement age: {Findings} from the {Stockholm} birth cohort study},
  year     = {2024},
  pages    = {102155},
  volume   = {91},
  abstract = {Aim The current study explores heterogeneity in the aggregate age-crime curve. This is achieved by analyzing to what extent there is empirical support for the existence of pivotal typologies in developmental and life-course criminology, as well as whether there is any heterogeneity in trajectories among adult-onset offenders (first recorded for crime at age 25 or later). Methods Data were drawn from a population-representative birth cohort of 14,608 males and females, followed prospectively in registers from age nine to 64. Trajectories of antisocial and criminal behavior were identified by means of group-based trajectory modelling. Results A small group with a high prevalence of crime across the life course, among both males and females, was found. Furthermore, a large proportion of offenders were adult-onset offenders, and there was meaningful heterogeneity in their criminal trajectories. However, the data did not lend much support to the hypothesized phenomenon of late-blooming. Conclusion There is meaningful heterogeneity in the aggregate age-crime curve, including trajectories that resonate fairly well with predictions derived from Moffitt's taxonomy. Nevertheless, there are firm reasons for theorizing proximate causes for the onset and continuation of crime beyond emerging adulthood.},
  doi      = {10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2024.102155},
  keywords = {Developmental and life-course criminology Typological theories Group-based trajectory modelling Persistent offending Adult-onset offending Late-blooming},
  url      = {https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0047235224000047},
}

﻿
@Article{Steffensmeier2025,
  author   = {Steffensmeier, Darrell and Slepicka, Jessie and Schwartz, Jennifer},
  journal  = {Annual Review of Criminology},
  title    = {International and Historical Variation in the Age–Crime Curve},
  year     = {2025},
  pages    = {239–268},
  volume   = {8},
  abstract = {Our goals were to assess competing narratives within criminology about contextual variation in the age–crime curve (ACC)—most prominently, whether the ACC shows constancy or difference across societies and historically and whether the prevalence of adolescent lawbreaking is high, with a majority of teens committing crime, contributing to a steep peak followed by rapid, continuous descent among adjacent adult age groups. We analyzed historical and cross-national evidence from numerous sources that revealed significant variance in ACCs. Strongly at odds with invariance projections of an adolescent peak and rapid descent, the predominant age–crime patterns outside the United States were postadolescent peaks and spread-out age distributions. Teen prevalence was typically much lower than the projection that a majority of teens commit crime, whereas the prevalence of adult crime was often sizable and serious. We illustrate using understudied societies how a socio-cultural framework that draws on age-graded expectations, social control practices, age-structured crime opportunities and stressors, and resultant lifestyle differences across significant life stages (adolescence, young adulthood, midlife) can apply to understanding cross-national differences in the age–crime relationship. Methodological challenges and future areas of research are discussed.},
  doi      = {10.1146/annurev-criminol-111523-122451},
  keywords = {developmental crime measurement criminological theory life course adolescence delinquency adult crime cross national},
  url      = {https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-criminol-111523-122451},
}

﻿
@Article{Moffitt1993,
  author   = {Moffitt, Terrie E.},
  journal  = {Psychological Review},
  title    = {Adolescence-limited and life-course-persistent antisocial behavior: {A} developmental taxonomy},
  year     = {1993},
  note     = {U Wisconsin, Madison, US. Other Publishers: Macmillan & Company; Psychological Review Company; The Macmillan Company; The Review Publishing Company. Release Date: 20060710. Publication Type: Journal, Peer Reviewed Journal. Media Covered: Print. Document Type: Journal Article. Language: English. Major Descriptor: Adolescent Development; Antisocial Behavior; Development. Classification: Behavior Disorders & Antisocial Behavior (3230); Population: Human (10); . Age Group: Adolescence (13-17 yrs) (200); . References Available: Y.. Issue Publication Date: Oct, 1993. Publication History: Accepted Date: Jan 15, 1993; Revised Date: Jan 4, 1993; First Submitted Date: Jun 29, 1992. Copyright: American Psychological Association. 1993.;},
  number   = {4},
  pages    = {674–701},
  volume   = {100},
  abstract = {Presents a dual taxonomy to reconcile 2 incongruous facts about antisocial behavior: (1) It shows impressive continuity over age, but (2) its prevalence changes dramatically over age, increasing almost 10-fold temporarily during adolescence. This article suggests that delinquency conceals 2 distinct categories of individuals, each with a unique natural history and etiology: A small group engages in antisocial behavior of one sort or another at every life stage, whereas a larger group is antisocial only during adolescence. According to the theory of life-course-persistent antisocial behavior, children's neuropsychological problems interact cumulatively with their criminogenic environments across development, culminating in a pathological personality. According to the theory of adolescence-limited antisocial behavior, a contemporary maturity gap encourages teens to mimic antisocial behavior in ways that are normative and adjustive. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)},
  doi      = {10.1037/0033-295X.100.4.674},
  keywords = {dual taxonomy of adolescence limited & life course persistent antisocial behavior Adolescent Development Antisocial Behavior Development},
  url      = {http://ezproxy.lib.indiana.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=pdh&AN=1994-05949-001&site=ehost-live&scope=site
http://psycnet.apa.org/index.cfm?fa=search.displayRecord&uid=1994-05949-001},
}

﻿
@Article{Fairchild2013,
  author   = {Fairchild, Graeme and van Goozen, Stephanie H. M. and Calder, Andrew J. and Goodyer, Ian M.},
  journal  = {Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry},
  title    = {{Research Review}: {Evaluating and reformulating the developmental taxonomic theory of antisocial behaviour}},
  year     = {2013},
  number   = {9},
  pages    = {924–940},
  volume   = {54},
  abstract = {Background The developmental taxonomic theory proposes that there are two subtypes of antisocial behaviour. The first is a neurodevelopmental disorder which emerges in early childhood and follows a life-course persistent course, whereas the second emerges in adolescence, remits in early adulthood and reflects peer processes such as mimicry of antisocial peers. The aim of this review was to evaluate the developmental taxonomic theory in the light of recent empirical research. Methods We conducted a comprehensive literature review comparing these subtypes of antisocial behaviour based on searches on PubMed and other scientific databases covering the period from 1993 to 2013. We focused on research encompassing psychiatric epidemiology, personality assessment, neuropsychology, neuroendocrinology, genetics, and structural and functional neuroimaging. Sixty one empirical studies were identified that investigated one of these forms of antisocial behaviour separately or explicitly compared childhood-onset and adolescence-onset forms of antisocial behaviour. Results Empirical research provides support for the hypothesis that life-course persistent antisocial behaviour is a neurodevelopmental disorder which emerges in the transactions between individual vulnerabilities and environmental adversity. In contrast to the developmental taxonomic theory, however, empirical findings suggest that severe antisocial behaviour that emerges in adolescence frequently has a negative prognosis and is rarely limited to the adolescent period. In addition, both forms of antisocial behaviour are associated with emotion processing deficits, changes in brain structure and function, alterations in cortisol secretion, and atypical personality traits (such as increased callous-unemotional traits). Conclusions We conclude that the developmental taxonomic theory is in need of revision, as differences between life-course persistent and adolescence-onset forms of antisocial behaviour appear to be quantitative, rather than qualitative, in nature. In addition, evidence is accumulating that adolescence-onset antisocial behaviour may also be a neurodevelopmental disorder. To account for the similarities between these groups, despite the differences in their age-of-onset, we propose that the quality of the child's early environment moderates the relationship between individual vulnerabilities and the age-of-onset of antisocial behaviour.},
  doi      = {10.1111/jcpp.12102},
  keywords = {Antisocial behaviour conduct disorder developmental taxonomic theory epidemiology neuropsychology neuroimaging},
  url      = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12102},
}

﻿
@Article{Petersen2015,
  author  = {Petersen, Isaac T. and Bates, John E. and Dodge, Kenneth A. and Lansford, Jennifer E. and Pettit, Gregory S.},
  journal = {Development and Psychopathology},
  title   = {Describing and predicting developmental profiles of externalizing problems from childhood to adulthood},
  year    = {2015},
  number  = {3},
  pages   = {791–818},
  volume  = {27},
  doi     = {10.1017/S0954579414000789},
  url     = {http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=9336620&fulltextType=RA&fileId=S0954579414000789},
}

﻿
@Article{Coghill2012,
  author   = {Coghill, David and Sonuga-Barke, Edmund J. S.},
  journal  = {Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry},
  title    = {{Annual Research Review}: {Categories} versus dimensions in the classification and conceptualisation of child and adolescent mental disorders: Implications of recent empirical study},
  year     = {2012},
  number   = {5},
  pages    = {469–489},
  volume   = {53},
  abstract = {The question of whether child and adolescent mental disorders are best classified using dimensional or categorical approaches is a contentious one that has equally profound implications for clinical practice and scientific enquiry. Here, we explore this issue in the context of the forth coming publication of the DSM-5 and ICD-11 approaches to classification and diagnosis and in the light of recent empirical studies. First, we provide an overview of current category-based systems and dimensional alternatives. Second, we distinguish the various strands of meaning and levels of analysis implied when we talk about categories and dimensions of mental disorder – distinguishing practical clinical necessity, formal diagnostic systems, meta-theoretical beliefs and empirical reality. Third, we introduce the different statistical techniques developed to identify disorder dimensions and categories in childhood populations and to test between categorical and dimensional models. Fourth, we summarise the empirical evidence from recent taxometric studies in favour of the ‘taxonomic hypothesis’ that mental disorder categories reflect discrete entities with putative specific causes. Finally, we explore the implications of these findings for clinical practice and science.},
  doi      = {10.1111/j.1469-7610.2011.02511.x},
  keywords = {Assessment classification diagnosis DSM factor analysis ICD taxometrics},
  url      = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2011.02511.x},
}

﻿
@Article{Forbes2016,
  author   = {Forbes, Miriam K. and Tackett, Jennifer L. and Markon, Kristian E. and Krueger, Robert F.},
  journal  = {Development and Psychopathology},
  title    = {Beyond comorbidity: {Toward} a dimensional and hierarchical approach to understanding psychopathology across the life span},
  year     = {2016},
  number   = {4pt1},
  pages    = {971–986},
  volume   = {28},
  abstract = {AbstractWe propose a novel developmentally informed framework to push research beyond a focus on comorbidity between discrete diagnostic categories and to move toward research based on the well-validated dimensional and hierarchical structure of psychopathology. For example, a large body of research speaks to the validity and utility of the internalizing and externalizing spectra as organizing constructs for research on common forms of psychopathology. The internalizing and externalizing spectra act as powerful explanatory variables that channel the psychopathological effects of genetic and environmental risk factors, predict adaptive functioning, and account for the likelihood of disorder-level manifestations of psychopathology. As such, our proposed theoretical framework uses the internalizing and externalizing spectra as central constructs to guide future psychopathology research across the life span. The framework is particularly flexible, because any of the facets or factors from the dimensional and hierarchical structure of psychopathology can form the focus of research. We describe the utility and strengths of this framework for developmental psychopathology in particular and explore avenues for future research.},
  doi      = {10.1017/S0954579416000651},
  url      = {https://www.cambridge.org/core/article/beyond-comorbidity-toward-a-dimensional-and-hierarchical-approach-to-understanding-psychopathology-across-the-life-span/1779A2524C8320F2854AC81F59A54380},
}

﻿
@Article{Kliem2018,
  author   = {Kliem, Sören and Heinrichs, Nina and Lohmann, Anna and Bussing, Regina and Schwarzer, Gudrun and Briegel, Wolfgang},
  journal  = {Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology},
  title    = {Dimensional latent structure of early disruptive behavior disorders: {A} taxometric analysis in preschoolers},
  year     = {2018},
  pages    = {1385–1394},
  volume   = {46},
  abstract = {Although disruptive behavior disorders (DBDs) are used as a distinct categorical diagnosis in clinical practice, they have repeatedly been described as having a dimensional structure in taxometric analyses. In the current study the authors analyzed the latent status of disruptive behaviors (DB) in a large sample (N = 2,808) of German preschool children (2–6 years old, mean age 53.7 months, SD = 13.5, 48.4\% girls). The Eyberg Child Behavior Inventory (ECBI) as well as the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) were used to compile indicators of the DB core dimensions (Temper Loss, Aggression, Noncompliance, and Low Concern for others). Three widely used taxometric methods (a) MAXEIG, (b) MAMBAC, and (c) L-Mode were applied. Simulation data were created to evaluate the Comparison Curve Fit Index values (CCFIs), which were below 0.45, supporting a dimensional solution. Hence, in the current study the latent structure of DB in preschoolers encompassed differences in degree rather than kind. Researchers and practitioners should be mindful of the dimensional latent status of DB in theory building, assessment, classification, and labeling.},
  doi      = {10.1007/s10802-017-0383-5},
  url      = {https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-017-0383-5},
}

﻿
@Article{Krueger2005,
  author   = {Krueger, Robert F. and Markon, Kristian E. and Patrick, Christopher J. and Iacono, William G.},
  journal  = {Journal of Abnormal Psychology},
  title    = {Externalizing psychopathology in adulthood: {A} dimensional-spectrum conceptualization and its implications for {DSM-V}},
  year     = {2005},
  note     = {Department of Psychology, University of Minnesota, Twin Cities Campus, MN, US. Other Journal Titles: The Journal of Abnormal Psychology; The Journal of Abnormal Psychology and Social Psychology; The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology. Release Date: 20060710. Publication Type: Journal, Peer Reviewed Journal. Media Covered: Electronic. Media Available: Electronic; Print. Document Type: Journal Article. Language: English. Major Descriptor: Antisocial Behavior; Diagnostic and Statistical Manual; Drug Abuse; Mental Disorders; Psychopathology. Minor Descriptor: Aggressive Behavior; Comorbidity; Drug Dependency; Externalization; Impulsiveness; Taxonomies. Classification: Psychological & Physical Disorders (3200); Population: Human (10); Male (30); Female (40); Location: US. Methodology: Empirical Study; Longitudinal Study; Quantitative Study. References Available: Y.. Issue Publication Date: Nov, 2005. Publication History: Accepted Date: Aug 4, 2004; Revised Date: Jul 22, 2004; First Submitted Date: Jan 8, 2004. Copyright: American Psychological Association. 2005.;},
  number   = {4},
  pages    = {537–550},
  volume   = {114},
  abstract = {Mental disorders involving antisocial behavior and substance use are genetically linked and vary continuously. The authors present a review and integrative conceptualization of these observations in terms of a dimensional and hierarchically organized externalizing spectrum. As a foundation for this conceptualization, the authors introduce a quantitative, model-based approach to comparing categorical and continuous conceptions of psychopathology and apply this approach in an empirical study of patterns of comorbidity among externalizing disorders as defined in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. The authors present evidence that comorbidity among externalizing disorders is best modeled by an underlying normally distributed continuum of risk for multiple disorders within the externalizing spectrum. The authors conclude by discussing implications of the externalizing spectrum conceptualization for classification of disorders in the upcoming 5th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved). (from the journal abstract)},
  doi      = {10.1037/0021-843x.114.4.537},
  keywords = {substance abuse/dependence antisocial behavior impulsivity aggression classification Diagnostic and Statistical Manual Drug Abuse Mental Disorders Psychopathology Aggressive Behavior Comorbidity Drug Dependency Externalization Impulsiveness Taxonomies},
  url      = {http://ezproxy.lib.indiana.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=pdh&AN=abn-114-4-537&site=ehost-live&scope=site
krueg038@umn.edu},
}

﻿
@Article{Krueger2002,
  author   = {Krueger, Robert F. and Piasecki, Thomas M.},
  journal  = {Behaviour Research and Therapy},
  title    = {Toward a dimensional and psychometrically-informed approach to conceptualizing psychopathology},
  year     = {2002},
  number   = {5},
  pages    = {485–499},
  volume   = {40},
  abstract = {Most modern research on psychopathology is framed by the categorical model of mental disorders embodied in the Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 4th edition (DSM-IV; American Psychiatric Association, 1994). Nevertheless, the categorical model of the DSM is incompatible with robust empirical observations about psychopathological variation, such as the tendency for multiple, putatively distinct mental disorders to occur in the same persons. The goal of this invited essay is to outline a potential alternative to the DSM’s categorical approach: a dimensional and psychometrically-informed approach to conceptualizing and studying psychopathology. We discuss the advantages of the dimensional approach, some modern statistical technologies that can be recruited in the service of the dimensional approach, and ways of integrating the dimensional approach with a behavioral approach to psychopathology assessment and research.},
  doi      = {10.1016/S0005-7967(02)00016-5},
  keywords = {Psychopathology Dimensional models Psychometrics Behavioral assessment Comorbidity},
  url      = {http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0005796702000165},
}

﻿
@Article{Kotov2017,
  author   = {Kotov, Roman and Krueger, Robert F. and Watson, David and Achenbach, Thomas M. and Althoff, Robert R. and Bagby, R. Michael and Brown, Timothy A. and Carpenter, William T. and Caspi, Avshalom and Clark, Lee Anna and Eaton, Nicholas R. and Forbes, Miriam K. and Forbush, Kelsie T. and Goldberg, David and Hasin, Deborah and Hyman, Steven E. and Ivanova, Masha Y. and Lynam, Donald R. and Markon, Kristian and Miller, Joshua D. and Moffitt, Terrie E. and Morey, Leslie C. and Mullins-Sweatt, Stephanie N. and Ormel, Johan and Patrick, Christopher J. and Regier, Darrel A. and Rescorla, Leslie and Ruggero, Camilo J. and Samuel, Douglas B. and Sellbom, Martin and Simms, Leonard J. and Skodol, Andrew E. and Slade, Tim and South, Susan C. and Tackett, Jennifer L. and Waldman, Irwin D. and Waszczuk, Monika A. and Widiger, Thomas A. and Wright, Aidan G. C. and Zimmerman, Mark},
  journal  = {Journal of Abnormal Psychology},
  title    = {The hierarchical taxonomy of psychopathology ({HiTOP}): {A} dimensional alternative to traditional nosologies},
  year     = {2017},
  number   = {4},
  pages    = {454–477},
  volume   = {126},
  abstract = {The reliability and validity of traditional taxonomies are limited by arbitrary boundaries between psychopathology and normality, often unclear boundaries between disorders, frequent disorder co-occurrence, heterogeneity within disorders, and diagnostic instability. These taxonomies went beyond evidence available on the structure of psychopathology and were shaped by a variety of other considerations, which may explain the aforementioned shortcomings. The Hierarchical Taxonomy Of Psychopathology (HiTOP) model has emerged as a research effort to address these problems. It constructs psychopathological syndromes and their components/subtypes based on the observed covariation of symptoms, grouping related symptoms together and thus reducing heterogeneity. It also combines co-occurring syndromes into spectra, thereby mapping out comorbidity. Moreover, it characterizes these phenomena dimensionally, which addresses boundary problems and diagnostic instability. Here, we review the development of the HiTOP and the relevant evidence. The new classification already covers most forms of psychopathology. Dimensional measures have been developed to assess many of the identified components, syndromes, and spectra. Several domains of this model are ready for clinical and research applications. The HiTOP promises to improve research and clinical practice by addressing the aforementioned shortcomings of traditional nosologies. It also provides an effective way to summarize and convey information on risk factors, etiology, pathophysiology, phenomenology, illness course, and treatment response. This can greatly improve the utility of the diagnosis of mental disorders. The new classification remains a work in progress. However, it is developing rapidly and is poised to advance mental health research and care significantly as the relevant science matures. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2017 APA, all rights reserved)},
  doi      = {10.1037/abn0000258},
}

﻿
@Article{Krueger2016,
  author   = {Krueger, Robert F. and DeYoung, Colin G.},
  journal  = {Psychophysiology},
  title    = {The {RDoC} initiative and the structure of psychopathology},
  year     = {2016},
  number   = {3},
  pages    = {351–354},
  volume   = {53},
  abstract = {The NIMH Research Domain Criteria (RDoC) project represents a welcome effort to circumvent the limitations of psychiatric categories as phenotypes for psychopathology research. Here, we describe the hierarchical and dimensional structure of phenotypic psychopathology and illustrate how this structure provides phenotypes suitable for RDoC research on neural correlates of psychopathology. A hierarchical and dimensional approach to psychopathology phenotypes holds great promise for delineating connections between neuroscience constructs and the patterns of affect, cognition, and behavior that constitute manifest psychopathology.},
  doi      = {10.1111/psyp.12551},
  url      = {http:https://dx.doi.org/10.1111/psyp.12551},
}

﻿
@Article{Krueger2011,
  author   = {Krueger, Robert F. and Markon, Kristian E.},
  journal  = {Archives of General Psychiatry},
  title    = {A dimensional-spectrum model of psychopathology: {Progress} and opportunities},
  year     = {2011},
  number   = {1},
  pages    = {10–11},
  volume   = {68},
  abstract = {In this issue of the Archives, Kessler et al provide a thorough account of the meaning of comorbidity among DSM-IV mental disorders. Their contribution involved comparing hypotheses regarding the developmental sequencing of comorbidity. One hypothesis was that specific disorders are involved in specific developmental comorbidity patterns. For example, obsessive-compulsive disorder might generally be a primary disorder, with that disorder then leading people to have few social contacts owing to the debilitating nature of their symptoms. Diminished social involvement might typically contribute to the development of a secondary major depressive episode in persons who have a primary diagnosis of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Numerous plausible pathways of this sort can be hypothesized.},
  doi      = {10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2010.188},
  url      = {https://doi.org/10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2010.188},
}

@Article{Krueger2007,
  author   = {Krueger, Robert F. and Markon, Kristian E. and Patrick, Christopher J. and Benning, Stephen D. and Kramer, Mark D.},
  journal  = {Journal of Abnormal Psychology},
  title    = {Linking antisocial behavior, substance use, and personality: {An} integrative quantitative model of the adult externalizing spectrum},
  year     = {2007},
  number   = {4},
  pages    = {645–666},
  volume   = {116},
  abstract = {Antisocial behavior, substance use, and impulsive and aggressive personality traits often co-occur, forming a coherent spectrum of personality and psychopathology. In the current research, the authors developed a novel quantitative model of this spectrum. Over 3 waves of iterative data collection, 1,787 adult participants selected to represent a range across the externalizing spectrum provided extensive data about specific externalizing behaviors. Statistical methods such as item response theory and semiparametric factor analysis were used to model these data. The model and assessment instrument that emerged from the research shows how externalizing phenomena are organized hierarchically and cover a wide range of individual differences. The authors discuss the utility of this model for framing research on the correlates and the etiology of externalizing phenomena. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)},
  doi      = {10.1037/0021-843X.116.4.645},
  keywords = {drug alcohol impulsivity aggression classification externalizing behaviors},
}

@Article{Krueger2004,
  author   = {Krueger, Robert F. and Nichol, Penny E. and Hicks, Brian M. and Markon, Kristian E. and Patrick, Christopher J. and lacono, William G. and McGue, Matt},
  journal  = {Psychological Assessment},
  title    = {Using latent trait modeling to conceptualize an alcohol problems continuum},
  year     = {2004},
  note     = {Department of Psychology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, US. Other Journal Titles: Psychological Assessment: A Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. Release Date: 20060710. Correction Date: 20090209. Publication Type: Journal, Peer Reviewed Journal. Media Covered: Print. Media Available: Electronic; Print. Document Type: Journal Article. Language: English. Major Descriptor: Alcoholism; Item Response Theory; Severity (Disorders); Simulation; Symptoms. Minor Descriptor: Alcohol Withdrawal; Drug Tolerance. Classification: Substance Abuse & Addiction (3233); Population: Human (10); Male (30); Location: US. Age Group: Adulthood (18 yrs & older) (300); . Tests & Measures: Substance Abuse Module; Methodology: Empirical Study; Qualitative Study. References Available: Y.. Issue Publication Date: Jun, 2004. Publication History: Accepted Date: Dec 8, 2003; Revised Date: Nov 14, 2003; First Submitted Date: Apr 22, 2003. Copyright: American Psychological Association. 2004.;},
  number   = {2},
  pages    = {107–119},
  volume   = {16},
  abstract = {Recent research points toward the viability of conceptualizing alcohol problems as arrayed along a continuum. Nevertheless, modern statistical techniques designed to scale multiple problems along a continuum (latent trait modeling; LTM) have rarely been applied to alcohol problems. This study applies LTM methods to data on 110 problems reported during in-person interviews of 1,348 middle-aged men (mean age=43) from the general population. The results revealed a continuum of severity linking the 110 problems, ranging from heavy and abusive drinking, through tolerance and withdrawal, to serious complications of alcoholism. These results indicate that alcohol problems can be arrayed along a dimension of severity and emphasize the relevance of LTM to informing the conceptualization and assessment of alcohol problems. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved). (from the journal abstract)},
  doi      = {10.1037/1040-3590.16.2.107},
  keywords = {alcohol problems latent trait modeling severity linking abusive drinking tolerance withdrawal alcoholism conceptualization assessment symptom parameter Item Response Theory Severity (Disorders) Simulation Symptoms Alcohol Withdrawal Drug Tolerance},
  url      = {http://ezproxy.lib.indiana.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=pdh&AN=pas-16-2-107&site=ehost-live
krueg038@umn.edu},
}

@Article{Markon2005,
  author   = {Markon, Kristian E. and Krueger, Robert F.},
  journal  = {Archives of General Psychiatry},
  title    = {Categorical and continuous models of liability to externalizing disorders: {A} direct comparison in {NESARC}},
  year     = {2005},
  number   = {12},
  pages    = {1352–1359},
  volume   = {62},
  abstract = {Context Patterns of genetic, environmental, and phenotypic relationships among antisocial behavior and substance use disorders indicate the presence of a common externalizing liability. However, whether this liability is relatively continuous and graded, or categorical and class-like, has not been well established. Objectives To compare the fit of categorical and continuous models of externalizing liability in a large, nationally representative sample. Design Categorical and continuous models of externalizing liability were compared using interview data from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions (NESARC). Setting Face-to-face interviews conducted in the United States. Participants Random sample of 43 093 noninstitutionalized adult civilians living in the United States. Main Outcome Measures Lifetime and current (past 12 months) diagnoses of antisocial personality disorder, nicotine dependence, alcohol dependence, marijuana dependence, cocaine dependence, and other substance dependence. Results In the entire sample, as well as for males and females separately, using either lifetime or current diagnoses, the best-fitting model of externalizing liability was a continuous normal model. Moreover, there was a general trend toward latent trait models fitting better than latent class models, indicating that externalizing liability was continuous and graded, rather than categorical and class-like. Conclusions Liability to externalizing spectrum disorders is graded and continuous normal in distribution. Research regarding etiology, assessment, and treatment of externalizing disorders should target externalizing liability over a range of severity. Current diagnoses represent extremes of this continuous liability distribution, indicating that conditions currently classified as subthreshold are likely to provide important information regarding liability to externalizing phenomena.},
  doi      = {10.1001/archpsyc.62.12.1352},
  url      = {http://archpsyc.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/abstract/62/12/1352},
}

@Article{Walton2011,
  author   = {Walton, Kate E. and Ormel, Johan and Krueger, Robert F.},
  journal  = {Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology},
  title    = {The dimensional nature of externalizing behaviors in adolescence: {Evidence} from a direct comparison of categorical, dimensional, and hybrid models},
  year     = {2011},
  number   = {4},
  pages    = {553–561},
  volume   = {39},
  abstract = {Researchers have recognized the importance of developing an accurate classification system for externalizing disorders, though much of this work has been framed by a priori preferences for categorical vs. dimensional constructs. Newer statistical technologies now allow categorical and dimensional models of psychopathology to be compared empirically. In this study, we directly compared the fit of categorical and dimensional models of externalizing behaviors in a large and representative community sample of adolescents at two time points separated by nearly 2.5 years ( N = 2027; mean age at Time 1 = 11.09 years; 50.8\% female). Delinquent and aggressive behaviors were assessed with child and parent Child Behavior Checklist reports. Latent trait, latent class, and factor mixture models were fit to the data, and at both time points, the latent trait model provided the best fit to the data. The item parameters were inspected and interpreted, and it was determined that the items were differentially sensitive across all regions of the dimension. We conclude that classification models can be based on empirical evidence rather than a priori preferences, and while current classification systems conceptualize externalizing problems in terms of discrete groups, they can be better conceptualized as dimensions.},
  doi      = {10.1007/s10802-010-9478-y},
  keywords = {Behavioral Science},
  url      = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10802-010-9478-y},
}

@Article{Wright2013,
  author   = {Wright, Aidan G. C. and Krueger, Robert F. and Hobbs, Megan J. and Markon, Kristian E. and Eaton, Nicholas R. and Slade, Tim},
  journal  = {Journal of Abnormal Psychology},
  title    = {The structure of psychopathology: {Toward} an expanded quantitative empirical model},
  year     = {2013},
  number   = {1},
  pages    = {281–294},
  volume   = {122},
  abstract = {There has been substantial recent interest in the development of a quantitative, empirically based model of psychopathology. However, the majority of pertinent research has focused on analyses of diagnoses, as described in current official nosologies. This is a significant limitation because existing diagnostic categories are often heterogeneous. In the current research, we aimed to redress this limitation of the existing literature, and to directly compare the fit of categorical, continuous, and hybrid (i.e., combined categorical and continuous) models of syndromes derived from indicators more fine-grained than diagnoses. We analyzed data from a large representative epidemiologic sample (the 2007 Australian National Survey of Mental Health and Wellbeing; N = 8,841). Continuous models provided the best fit for each syndrome we observed (distress, obsessive compulsivity, fear, alcohol problems, drug problems, and psychotic experiences). In addition, the best fitting higher-order model of these syndromes grouped them into three broad spectra: Internalizing, Externalizing, and Psychotic Experiences. We discuss these results in terms of future efforts to refine emerging empirically based, dimensional-spectrum model of psychopathology, and to use the model to frame psychopathology research more broadly. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2013 APA, all rights reserved)},
  doi      = {10.1037/a0030133},
  keywords = {DSM classification mental disorder nosology psychopathology},
}

﻿
@Article{Sellbom2016,
  author   = {Sellbom, Martin},
  journal  = {Journal of Abnormal Psychology},
  title    = {Elucidating the validity of the externalizing spectrum of psychopathology in correctional, forensic, and community samples},
  year     = {2016},
  number   = {8},
  pages    = {1027–1038},
  volume   = {125},
  abstract = {Krueger and colleagues (2007) have elaborated on a hierarchical structural model of externalizing psychopathology, with a general overarching factor and 2 residual liability factors reflecting callous-aggression and substance misuse. The current study used an independent set of symptom and behavior indicators (items derived from the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory–2-Restructured Form) to test alternative models of externalizing. In mixed-sex samples of correctional inmates (n = 42,290), forensic criminal defendants (n = 1,065), and community participants (n = 2,214), a bifactor model based on Krueger, Markon, Patrick, Benning, and Kramer (2007) was associated with better model fit relative to a 1-factor model, 2-factor model, and a bifactor model with 2 random bifactors. Moreover, the Krueger et al. model was largely invariant across sex, race, and time. Finally, external validity analyses from the forensic sample revealed that the latent factors were associated with a range of forensically relevant outcomes. More specifically, those high on general externalizing were less likely to be deemed mentally ill, incompetent, or insane in court-ordered evaluations. Those high on the callous-aggression bifactor were more likely to have violent crime convictions. Those high on the residual substance misuse factor were more likely to be recommended for drug intervention in-lieu of conviction and be clinically diagnosed with drug dependence. In conclusion, the externalizing spectrum appears robust regardless of settings and indicators examined, and its domains are associated with theoretically expected outcomes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2016 APA, all rights reserved)},
  doi      = {10.1037/abn0000171},
  keywords = {*Criminals *Externalization *Mental Disorders *Prisoners *Psychopathology Correctional Institutions Violent Crime},
}

﻿
@Article{Markon2011,
  author   = {Markon, Kristian E. and Chmielewski, Michael and Miller, Christopher J.},
  journal  = {Psychological Bulletin},
  title    = {The reliability and validity of discrete and continuous measures of psychopathology: {A} quantitative review},
  year     = {2011},
  note     = {Department of Psychology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, US. Other Publishers: Psychological Review Company; The Macmillan Company; The Review Publishing Company. Release Date: 20110516. Correction Date: 20111024. Publication Type: Journal (0100), Peer Reviewed Journal (0110). Format Covered: Electronic. Document Type: Journal Article. Language: English. Major Descriptor: Diagnosis; Psychological Assessment; Psychopathology; Test Reliability; Test Validity. Minor Descriptor: Meta Analysis; Taxonomies. Classification: Clinical Psychological Testing (2224); Psychological Disorders (3210). Population: Human (10). Methodology: Meta Analysis. References Available: Y. Page Count: 24. Issue Publication Date: Sep, 2011. Publication History: First Posted Date: May 16, 2011; Accepted Date: Apr 18, 2011; Revised Date: Apr 16, 2011; First Submitted Date: Apr 21, 2010. Copyright Statement: American Psychological Association. 2011.},
  number   = {5},
  pages    = {856–879},
  volume   = {137},
  abstract = {[Correction Notice: An erratum for this article was reported in Vol 137(6) of Psychological Bulletin (see record [rid]2011-24066-002[/rid]). In the Samples section of Meta-Analysis 1: Reliability, third paragraph, the number of studies reporting data on clinical samples is incorrect. The sentence “Four studies included clinical samples, and eight studies included nonclinical samples” should read “Twenty-four studies included clinical samples, and eight studies included nonclinical samples.”] In 2 meta-analyses involving 58 studies and 59,575 participants, we quantitatively summarized the relative reliability and validity of continuous (i.e., dimensional) and discrete (i.e., categorical) measures of psychopathology. Overall, results suggest an expected 15\% increase in reliability and 37\% increase in validity through adoption of a continuous over discrete measure of psychopathology alone. This increase occurs across all types of samples and forms of psychopathology, with little evidence for exceptions. For typical observed effect sizes, the increase in validity is sufficient to almost halve sample sizes necessary to achieve standard power levels. With important caveats, the current results, considered with previous research, provide sufficient empirical and theoretical basis to assume a priori that continuous measurement of psychopathology is more reliable and valid. Use of continuous measures in psychopathology assessment has widespread theoretical and practical benefits in research and clinical settings. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2013 APA, all rights reserved). (journal abstract)},
  doi      = {10.1037/a0023678},
  keywords = {diagnosis meta-analysis psychiatric classification reliability validity psychopathology assessment Psychological Assessment Psychopathology Test Reliability Test Validity Meta Analysis Taxonomies},
  url      = {http://proxyiub.uits.iu.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=pdh&AN=2011-09705-001&site=ehost-live&scope=site
kristian-markon@uiowa.edu},
}

﻿
@Article{Bolhuis2017,
  author   = {Bolhuis, Koen and Lubke, Gitta H. and van der Ende, Jan and Bartels, Meike and van Beijsterveldt, Catharina E. M. and Lichtenstein, Paul and Larsson, Henrik and Jaddoe, Vincent W. V. and Kushner, Steven A. and Verhulst, Frank C. and Boomsma, Dorret I. and Tiemeier, Henning},
  journal  = {Journal of the American Academy of Child \& Adolescent Psychiatry},
  title    = {Disentangling heterogeneity of childhood disruptive behavior problems into dimensions and subgroups},
  year     = {2017},
  number   = {8},
  pages    = {678–686},
  volume   = {56},
  abstract = {ObjectiveIrritable and oppositional behaviors are increasingly considered as distinct dimensions of oppositional defiant disorder. However, few studies have explored this multidimensionality across the broader spectrum of disruptive behavior problems (DBPs). This study examined (a) the presence of dimensions and distinct subgroups of childhood DBPs and (b) the cross-sectional and longitudinal associations between these dimensions.},
  doi      = {10.1016/j.jaac.2017.05.019},
  url      = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2017.05.019},
}

﻿
@Article{Krueger2021,
  author  = {Krueger, Robert F. and Hobbs, Kelsey A. and Conway, Christopher C. and Dick, Danielle M. and Dretsch, Michael N. and Eaton, Nicholas R. and Forbes, Miriam K. and Forbush, Kelsie T. and Keyes, Katherine M. and Latzman, Robert D. and Michelini, Giorgia and Patrick, Christopher J. and Sellbom, Martin and Slade, Tim and South, Susan C. and Sunderland, Matthew and Tackett, Jennifer L. and Waldman, Irwin and Waszczuk, Monika A. and Wright, Aidan G. C. and Zald, David H. and Watson, David and Kotov, Roman and HiTOP Utility Workgroup},
  journal = {World Psychiatry},
  title   = {Validity and utility of Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology ({HiTOP}): {II}. {Externalizing} superspectrum},
  year    = {2021},
  number  = {2},
  pages   = {171–193},
  volume  = {20},
  doi     = {10.1002/wps.20844},
}

﻿
@Article{Walters2011,
  author   = {Walters, Glenn D.},
  journal  = {Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology},
  title    = {The latent structure of life-course-persistent antisocial behavior: {Is} {Moffitt's} developmental taxonomy a true taxonomy?},
  year     = {2011},
  number   = {1},
  pages    = {96–105},
  volume   = {79},
  abstract = {Objective: The purpose of this study was to determine whether life-course-persistent (LCP) and adolescence-limited (AL) antisocial behavior form distinct categories or lie along a common dimension. Method: Taxometric analyses were performed on 2,175 men and women from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth–Child Data (Center for Human Resource Research, 2009) with at least 1 self-reported delinquent act. The 3 externalizing factor scales from the parent-rated Behavior Problems Index (Peterson & Zill, 1986)—Antisocial, Headstrong, and Hyperactive—served as indicators in an investigation into the latent structure of LCP and AL antisocial behavior. Results: All 3 taxometric procedures included in this study—mean above minus below a cut, maximum covariance, and latent mode factor analysis—produced results consistent with the conclusion that the latent structure of LCP and AL antisocial behavior is dimensional in nature. Conclusion: From a conceptual standpoint, the results of this study suggest that LCP and AL antisocial behavior differ in degree (quantitative difference) rather than in kind (qualitative difference). These results have potentially important implications for theory development as well as for clinical assessment, diagnosis, and intervention. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)},
  doi      = {10.1037/a0021519},
  keywords = {developmental taxonomy latent structure life-course-persistent taxometrics adolescence-limited antisocial behavior},
}

@Article{Walters2012,
  author   = {Walters, Glenn D.},
  journal  = {Criminal Justice and Behavior},
  title    = {Developmental trajectories of delinquent behavior: {One} pattern or several?},
  year     = {2012},
  number   = {9},
  pages    = {1192–1203},
  volume   = {39},
  abstract = {A latent class growth analysis (LCGA) of self-reported involvement in delinquency was performed on a sample of 1,414 boys and girls from the 1997 version of the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth. The LCGA results revealed the presence of three trajectories (high, medium, and low elevation). The three-trajectory and three-class posterior probabilities models were subsequently compared to a simple dimensional model composed of the sum of all delinquent acts reported in a 7-year period. Analyses revealed that the simple dimensional model correlated significantly better with measures of delinquency initiation and severity than the three-trajectory and posterior probabilities models. The fact that a categorical model created from the results of an LCGA analysis and posterior probabilities of class membership experienced significantly weaker effect sizes than a simple dimensional model suggests the absence of a nonarbitrary division between the trajectory groups identified in this study.},
  doi      = {10.1177/0093854812443645},
  url      = {http://cjb.sagepub.com/content/39/9/1192.abstract},
}

@article{Walters2014,
   author = {Walters, Glenn D.},
   title = {Continuous versus categorical models of delinquency risk},
   journal = {American Journal of Criminal Justice},
   volume = {39},
   number = {3},
   pages = {395–410},
   doi = {10.1007/s12103-013-9235-1},
   url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12103-013-9235-1},
   abstract = {Two groups of participants, one a nationally representative sample with roughly equal numbers of male and female participants (N = 8,984) and the other a sample of mostly male adjudicated delinquents (N = 1,354), were used to test whether risk factors for delinquency are organized continuously or categorically. A continuous (variable-centered) model was created using factor scores from a one-factor confirmatory factor analysis and a categorical (person-centered) model was constructed using posterior probabilities from a two-class finite mixture modeling analysis. In both samples the continuous model correlated significantly better with subsequent offending than did the categorical model, a finding that was replicated in males from both samples and in females from the nationally representative sample. The current findings suggest that risk factors are better construed as points along a continuum rather than as properties of distinct groups or types. These results further suggest that the etiology of offending, in the form of risk factors, is general/additive rather than specific/selective. The implications of these results for theory development, clinical practice, and future research are discussed.},
   year = {2014}
}

@Article{Walters2015,
  author   = {Walters, Glenn D.},
  journal  = {American Journal of Criminal Justice},
  title    = {The latent structure of criminal persistence: {A} taxometric analysis of offending behavior from late adolescence to early adulthood in adjudicated male delinquents},
  year     = {2015},
  number   = {3},
  pages    = {542–559},
  volume   = {40},
  abstract = {This study examines the latent structure of offending persistence from late adolescence through early adulthood. Self-reported involvement in drug crimes, person crimes, and property crimes between the ages of 17 and 21 years were analyzed in 1,160 male members of the Pathways to Desistance study (Mulvey, 2012). Scores on the three indicators were subjected to longitudinal (by summing across the five time periods) and cross-sectional (by testing each individual time period) taxometric analysis. Outcomes obtained using the mean above minus below a cut (MAMBAC), maximum covariance (MAXCOV), and latent mode factor analysis (L-Mode) taxometric procedures revealed consistent support for continuous latent structure in both the longitudinal and cross-sectional analyses. It would appear that continued criminal involvement beyond adolescence is not an all-or-nothing phenomenon and that it may be more productive to order individuals along a persistence-desistance continuum than assign them to mutually exclusive categories, trajectories, or typologies.},
  doi      = {10.1007/s12103-014-9272-4},
  url      = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12103-014-9272-4},
}

@Article{Walters2013,
  author   = {Walters, Glenn D. and Ruscio, John},
  journal  = {Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology},
  title    = {Trajectories of youthful antisocial behavior: {Categories} or continua?},
  year     = {2013},
  number   = {4},
  pages    = {653–666},
  volume   = {41},
  doi      = {10.1007/s10802-012-9700-1},
  keywords = {Taxometric method Trajectories Antisocial behavior Latent structure},
  url      = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10802-012-9700-1},
}

﻿
@Article{Wakschlag2014,
  author   = {Wakschlag, Lauren S. and Briggs-Gowan, Margaret J. and Choi, Seung W. and Nichols, Sara R. and Kestler, Jacqueline and Burns, James L. and Carter, Alice S. and Henry, David},
  journal  = {Journal of the American Academy of Child \& Adolescent Psychiatry},
  title    = {Advancing a multidimensional, developmental spectrum approach to preschool disruptive behavior},
  year     = {2014},
  number   = {1},
  pages    = {82–96.e3},
  volume   = {53},
  abstract = {Dimensional approaches are gaining scientific traction. However, their potential for elucidating developmental aspects of psychopathology has not been fully realized. The goal of this paper is to apply a multidimensional, developmental framework to model the normal-abnormal spectrum of preschool disruptive behavior. The Multidimensional Assessment of Preschool Disruptive Behavior (MAP-DB), a novel measure, was used to model dimensional severity across developmental parameters theorized to distinguish the normative misbehavior of early childhood from clinically salient disruptive behavior. The 4 MAP-DB dimensions are: Temper Loss, Noncompliance, Aggression, and Low Concern for Others. Parents of a diverse sample of 1,488 preschoolers completed the MAP-DB. Multidimensional item response theory (IRT) was employed for dimensional modeling. The 4-dimension, developmentally informed model demonstrated excellent fit. Its factor loadings did not differ across demographic subgroups. All dimensions provided good coverage of the abnormal end of the severity continuum, but only Temper Loss and Noncompliance provided good coverage of milder, normatively occurring behaviors. The developmental expectability and quality of behaviors distinguished normative from atypical behaviors. The point at which frequency of behaviors was atypical varied based on dimensional location for Temper Loss, Noncompliance, and Aggression. The MAP-DB provides an innovative method for operationalizing developmentally specified, dimensional phenotypes in early childhood. Establishing the validity of these dimensional phenotypes in relation to clinical outcomes, neurocognitive substrates and etiologic pathways will be a crucial test of their clinical utility.},
  doi      = {10.1016/j.jaac.2013.10.011},
  keywords = {developmental psychopathology dimensional disruptive behavior externalizing spectrum preschool},
  url      = {http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0890856713007818?showall=true
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0890856713007818},
}

﻿
@Article{Haslam2020,
  author   = {Haslam, Nick and McGrath, Melanie J. and Viechtbauer, Wolfgang and Kuppens, Peter},
  journal  = {Psychological Medicine},
  title    = {Dimensions over categories: {A} meta-analysis of taxometric research},
  year     = {2020},
  number   = {9},
  pages    = {1418–1432},
  volume   = {50},
  abstract = {Taxometric procedures have been used extensively to investigate whether individual differences in personality and psychopathology are latently dimensional or categorical (‘taxonic’). We report the first meta-analysis of taxometric research, examining 317 findings drawn from 183 articles that employed an index of the comparative fit of observed data to dimensional and taxonic data simulations. Findings supporting dimensional models outnumbered those supporting taxonic models five to one. There were systematic differences among 17 construct domains in support for the two models, but psychopathology was no more likely to generate taxonic findings than normal variation (i.e. individual differences in personality, response styles, gender, and sexuality). No content domain showed aggregate support for the taxonic model. Six variables – alcohol use disorder, intermittent explosive disorder, problem gambling, autism, suicide risk, and pedophilia – emerged as the most plausible taxon candidates based on a preponderance of independently replicated findings. We also compared the 317 meta-analyzed findings to 185 additional taxometric findings from 96 articles that did not employ the comparative fit index. Studies that used the index were 4.88 times more likely to generate dimensional findings than those that did not after controlling for construct domain, implying that many taxonic findings obtained before the popularization of simulation-based techniques are spurious. The meta-analytic findings support the conclusion that the great majority of psychological differences between people are latently continuous, and that psychopathology is no exception.},
  doi      = {10.1017/S003329172000183X},
  keywords = {Category classification dimension taxometric},
  url      = {https://www.cambridge.org/core/article/dimensions-over-categories-a-metaanalysis-of-taxometric-research/DE0D446F576907FA8FAC34FEFA44A497},
}

﻿
@Article{Haslam2012,
  author   = {Haslam, N. and Holland, E. and Kuppens, P.},
  journal  = {Psychological Medicine},
  title    = {Categories versus dimensions in personality and psychopathology: {A} quantitative review of taxometric research},
  year     = {2012},
  number   = {05},
  pages    = {903–920},
  volume   = {42},
  abstract = {Taxometric research methods were developed by Paul Meehl and colleagues to distinguish between categorical and dimensional models of latent variables. We have conducted a comprehensive review of published taxometric research that included 177 articles, 311 distinct findings and a combined sample of 533 377 participants. Multilevel logistic regression analyses have examined the methodological and substantive variables associated with taxonic (categorical) findings. Although 38.9% of findings were taxonic, these findings were much less frequent in more recent and methodologically stronger studies, and in those reporting comparative fit indices based on simulated comparison data. When these and other possible confounds were statistically controlled, the true prevalence of taxonic findings was estimated at 14%. The domains of normal personality, mood disorders, anxiety disorders, eating disorders, externalizing disorders, and personality disorders (PDs) other than schizotypal yielded little persuasive evidence of taxa. Promising but still not definitive evidence of psychological taxa was confined to the domains of schizotypy, substance use disorders and autism. This review indicates that most latent variables of interest to psychiatrists and personality and clinical psychologists are dimensional, and that many influential taxonic findings of early taxometric research are likely to be spurious.},
  doi      = {10.1017/S0033291711001966},
  keywords = {Categories, dimensions, personality, psychopathology, taxometrics},
  url      = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0033291711001966},
}

﻿
@Article{Barry2013,
  author   = {Barry, Tammy D. and Marcus, David K. and Barry, Christopher T. and Coccaro, Emil F.},
  journal  = {Journal of Psychiatric Research},
  title    = {The latent structure of oppositional defiant disorder in children and adults},
  year     = {2013},
  number   = {12},
  pages    = {1932–1939},
  volume   = {47},
  abstract = {An understanding of the latent structure of oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) is essential for better developing causal models, improving diagnostic and assessment procedures, and enhancing treatments for the disorder. Although much research has focused on ODD—including recent studies informing the diagnostic criteria for DSM-5—research examining the latent structure of ODD is sparse, and no known study has specifically undertaken a taxometric analysis to address the issue of whether ODD is a categorical or dimensional construct. To address this gap, the authors conducted two separate studies using a set of taxometric analyses with data from the NICHD Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development (child study; n = 969) and with data from a large mixed sample of adults, which included participants reporting psychiatric difficulties as well as healthy controls (adult study; n = 600). The results of a variety of non-redundant analyses across both studies revealed a dimensional latent structure for ODD symptoms among both children and adults. These findings are consistent with previous studies that have examined latent structure of related constructs (e.g., aggression, antisocial behavior) as well as studies that have examined the dimensional versus categorical structure of ODD using methods other than taxometric analysis.},
  doi      = {10.1016/j.jpsychires.2013.08.016},
  keywords = {Oppositional defiant disorder Taxometric analysis Latent structure},
  url      = {https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022395613002677},
}

﻿
@Article{Kliem2022,
  author   = {Kliem, Sören and Krieg, Yvonne and Klatt, Thimna and Baier, Dirk},
  journal  = {Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology},
  title    = {Dimensional Latent Structure of Callous-Unemotional Traits in German Adolescents: Results from Taxometric Analyses},
  year     = {2022},
  number   = {6},
  pages    = {771–780},
  volume   = {50},
  abstract = {A large amount of research has addressed the issue of the latent status of psychiatric disorders and related phenomena. We used a new taxometric approach developed by Ruscio to examine the latent status of callous-unemotional (CU) traits in a large representative study of German ninth graders (N = 3,878). Rather than estimating a putative taxon base rate and using that estimate to generate the taxon comparative data, we estimated CCFI profiles with each base rate estimate between 2.5\% and 97.5\% in increments of 2.5\%. Results of different indicator sets clearly suggested a dimensional solution. This finding is consistent with different studies showing the dimensionality of psychopathy in adolescents. In summary, the results of this study point to the need for critical reflection in defining a high-risk-group in the context of CU traits. However, further studies are necessary to substantiate this result in different samples using different measurement approaches.},
  doi      = {10.1007/s10802-021-00885-y},
  url      = {https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-021-00885-y},
}

﻿
@Article{Burt2012,
  author   = {Burt, S. Alexandra},
  journal  = {Clinical Psychology Review},
  title    = {How do we optimally conceptualize the heterogeneity within antisocial behavior? {An} argument for aggressive versus non-aggressive behavioral dimensions},
  year     = {2012},
  number   = {4},
  pages    = {263–279},
  volume   = {32},
  abstract = {Extant research has highlighted meaningful distinctions in the correlates, developmental trajectories, and etiologies of physically aggressive (AGG) as compared to non-aggressive rule-breaking (RB) antisocial behavior. AGG is a highly heritable behavioral dimension that emerges in early childhood and exhibits specific ties to negative emotionality and executive dysfunction. Although the frequency of aggressive behaviors decreases after early childhood, those who are most aggressive early in life typically continue to aggress at relatively high rates across the lifespan. By contrast, RB demonstrates specific associations with impulsivity, is most frequent during adolescence, and evidences more moderate levels of stability and stronger environmental influences as compared to AGG. These etiological and developmental differences link up quite well to Moffitt's (1993) developmental taxonomy of antisocial behavior, providing a clear theoretical basis for examining differences between AGG and RB. Perhaps more importantly, however, the link between AGG/RB and Moffitt's taxonomy allows us to conceptualize her categorical taxonomy in dimensional terms, an important development given the recent emphasis on dimensional conceptualizations of psychopathology. Available evidence further indicates that neither AGG nor RB is redundant with callous–unemotional traits. The current review thus underscores the clear advantages of differentiating between AGG and RB when studying antisocial behavior.},
  doi      = {10.1016/j.cpr.2012.02.006},
  keywords = {Aggression Rule-breaking Antisocial behavior Age of onset Callous–unemotional traits},
  url      = {http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0272735812000293
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2012.02.006},
}

﻿
@Article{Chumlea2009,
  author   = {Chumlea, W. M. C. and Choh, A. and Lee, M. and Towne, B. and Sherwood, R. J. and Duren, D. and Czerwinski, S. and Siervogel, R. M.},
  journal  = {The Journal of Nutrition, Health and Aging},
  title    = {The first seriatim study into old age for weight, stature and {BMI}: {The} {Fels Longitudinal Study}},
  year     = {2009},
  number   = {1},
  pages    = {3–5},
  volume   = {13},
  abstract = {Purpose To document the serial status of measures of weight, stature and BMI from birth into old age. Methods Longitudinal measures of weight, stature and BMI were taken from birth to 76 years of age for 5 men and 7 women as part of the Fels Longitudinal Study. Results Sex-specific plots of means for weight, stature and BMI are presented that describe the changes and sex differences in these measurements between birth (or the first year of life) into old age. These serial data demonstrate a continuous increase in body weight through much of adulthood and a small decline in stature starting in late middle age. The plots for BMI indicate the early onset of overweight and subsequent obesity early in adulthood and its continuance into old age for men and women. Conclusions These are the first plots of serial means for weight, stature and BMI measured from the same group of individuals from birth into old age. These findings demonstrate the changes in these measurements through childhood and maturity into old age. Similar data are needed for individuals from other racial/ethnic groups and countries in order to understand the aging process better.},
  doi      = {10.1007/s12603-009-0001-5},
  keywords = {Small Decline Longitudinal Measure Informed Consent Statement Human Kinetic Publisher Recumbent Length},
  url      = {https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1279770723023096},
}

@Book{Roche1992,
  author    = {Roche, Alex F.},
  publisher = {Cambridge University Press},
  title     = {Growth, Maturation, and Body Composition: {The} {Fels Longitudinal Study} 1929–1991},
  year      = {1992},
}

﻿
@Article{Moss1964,
  author   = {Moss, Howard A. and Kagan, Jerome},
  journal  = {Vita Humana},
  title    = {Report on personality consistency and change from the {Fels Longitudinal Study}},
  year     = {1964},
  number   = {2},
  pages    = {127–138},
  volume   = {7},
  abstract = {[The assumptions studied here were that certain adult behaviors are established at an early age and that early maternal treatment is an important predictor of personality development. The subjects were 36 males and 35 females. Longitudinal reports were used for rating each subject for aggressive, achievement, and passive-dependent behavior for four childhood age periods. The mothers' treatment of the child was also rated for each period. A second rater independently evaluated these subjects when they were adults, using interview material and comparable variables. The results consisted of correlations between the childhood and adult ratings and showed that childhood aggression predicted adult aggression only for males. Childhood passive-dependent behavior predicted similar adult behaviors only for females. Achievement behavior was stable for both sexes. The second major finding was that maternal treatment for the 0–3 age period was more predictive of the child and adult ratings than later maternal ratings.]},
  doi      = {10.1159/000270073},
  url      = {http://www.jstor.org/stable/26761430},
}

﻿
@Book{Kagan1962,
  author    = {Kagan, Jerome and Moss, Howard A},
  publisher = {Wiley},
  title     = {Birth to maturity: {A} study in psychological development},
  year      = {1962},
  address   = {New York, NY, US},
  doi       = {10.1037/13129-000},
}

﻿
@InBook{Kagan1969,
  author    = {Kagan, Jerome},
  editor    = {Goslin, David A.},
  pages     = {983–1002},
  publisher = {Rand McNally},
  title     = {The three faces of continuity in human development},
  year      = {1969},
  address   = {Chicago, IL, US},
  note      = {https://works.swarthmore.edu/alum-books/2913/},
  booktitle = {Handbook of socialization theory and research},
}

@Book{Kagan1971,
  author    = {Kagan, Jerome},
  publisher = {Wiley},
  title     = {Change and continuity in infancy},
  year      = {1971},
  address   = {New York, NY, US},
  note      = {https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1973-10863-000},
}

@InBook{Kagan1980,
  author    = {Kagan, Jerome},
  chapter   = {2},
  editor    = {Brim Jr., Orville G. and Kagan, Jerome},
  pages     = {26–74},
  publisher = {Harvard University Press},
  title     = {Perspectives on continuity},
  year      = {1980},
  address   = {Cambridge, MA, US},
  note      = {https://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674166257},
  booktitle = {Constancy and change in human development},
}

@Book{PetersenPrinciplesPsychAssessment,
  author    = {Petersen, Isaac T.},
  publisher = {University of Iowa Libraries},
  title     = {Principles of psychological assessment: {With} applied examples in {R}},
  year      = {2026},
  isbn      = {978-0-9840378-2-7},
  note      = {Version 1.0.7},
  doi       = {10.25820/work.007199},
}

﻿
@Article{Poulton2015,
  author   = {Poulton, Richie and Moffitt, Terrie E. and Silva, Phil A.},
  journal  = {Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology},
  title    = {The {Dunedin Multidisciplinary Health and Development Study}: {Overview} of the first 40 years, with an eye to the future},
  year     = {2015},
  number   = {5},
  pages    = {679–693},
  volume   = {50},
  abstract = {The Dunedin Multidisciplinary Health and Development Study began more than four decades ago. Unusual at the time, it was founded as a multidisciplinary research enterprise, and was strongly supported by the Dunedin community, both professional and lay, in its early years. Seven research themes have evolved over the past 40 years focusing on mental health and neuro-cognition, cardiovascular risk, respiratory health, oral health, sexual and reproductive health, and psychosocial functioning. A seventh, more applied theme, seeks to maximise the value of the Study findings for New Zealand’s indigenous people—Māori (or tangata whenua transl people of the land). The study has published over 1200 papers and reports to date, with almost 2/3 of these being in peer-reviewed journals. Here we provide an overview of the study, its history, leadership structure, scientific approach, operational foci, and some recent examples of work that illustrate the following: (a) the value of multidisciplinary data; (b) how the study is well positioned to address contemporary issues; and (c) how research can simultaneously address multiple audiences—from researchers and theoreticians to policy makers and practitioners. Near-future research plans are described, and we end by reflecting upon the core aspects of the study that portend future useful contributions.},
  doi      = {10.1007/s00127-015-1048-8},
  url      = {https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-015-1048-8},
}

﻿
@Article{Moffitt2011,
  author  = {Moffitt, Terrie E. and Arseneault, Louise and Belsky, Daniel W. and Dickson, Nigel and Hancox, Robert J. and Harrington, HonaLee and Houts, Renate and Poulton, Richie and Roberts, Brent W. and Ross, Stephen and Sears, Malcolm R. and Thomson, W. Murray and Caspi, Avshalom},
  journal = {Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences},
  title   = {A gradient of childhood self-control predicts health, wealth, and public safety},
  year    = {2011},
  number  = {7},
  pages   = {2693–2698},
  volume  = {108},
  doi     = {10.1073/pnas.1010076108},
}

﻿
@Article{Caspi2014,
  author   = {Caspi, Avshalom and Houts, Renate M. and Belsky, Daniel W. and Goldman-Mellor, Sidra J. and Harrington, HonaLee and Israel, Salomon and Meier, Madeline H. and Ramrakha, Sandhya and Shalev, Idan and Poulton, Richie and Moffitt, Terrie E.},
  journal  = {Clinical Psychological Science},
  title    = {The {p} factor: {One} general psychopathology factor in the structure of psychiatric disorders?},
  year     = {2014},
  number   = {2},
  pages    = {119–137},
  volume   = {2},
  abstract = {Mental disorders traditionally have been viewed as distinct, episodic, and categorical conditions. This view has been challenged by evidence that many disorders are sequentially comorbid, recurrent/chronic, and exist on a continuum. Using the Dunedin Multidisciplinary Health and Development Study, we examined the structure of psychopathology, taking into account dimensionality, persistence, co-occurrence, and sequential comorbidity of mental disorders across 20 years, from adolescence to midlife. Psychiatric disorders were initially explained by three higher-order factors (Internalizing, Externalizing, and Thought Disorder) but explained even better with one General Psychopathology dimension. We have called this dimension the p factor because it conceptually parallels a familiar dimension in psychological science: the g factor of general intelligence. Higher p scores are associated with more life impairment, greater familiality, worse developmental histories, and more compromised early-life brain function. The p factor explains why it is challenging to find causes, consequences, biomarkers, and treatments with specificity to individual mental disorders. Transdiagnostic approaches may improve research.},
  doi      = {10.1177/2167702613497473},
  url      = {http://cpx.sagepub.com/content/early/2013/08/14/2167702613497473.abstract},
}

﻿
@Article{Schaefer2017,
  author   = {Schaefer, Jonathan D. and Caspi, Avshalom and Belsky, Daniel W. and Harrington, Honalee and Houts, Renate and Horwood, L. John and Hussong, Andrea and Ramrakha, Sandhya and Poulton, Richie and Moffitt, Terrie E.},
  journal  = {Journal of Abnormal Psychology},
  title    = {Enduring mental health: {Prevalence} and prediction},
  year     = {2017},
  number   = {2},
  pages    = {212–224},
  volume   = {126},
  abstract = {We review epidemiological evidence indicating that most people will develop a diagnosable mental disorder, suggesting that only a minority experience enduring mental health. This minority has received little empirical study, leaving the prevalence and predictors of enduring mental health unknown. We turn to the population-representative Dunedin cohort, followed from birth to midlife, to compare people never-diagnosed with mental disorder (N = 171; 17% prevalence) to those diagnosed at 1–2 study waves, the cohort mode (N = 409). Surprisingly, compared to this modal group, never-diagnosed Study members were not born into unusually well-to-do families, nor did their enduring mental health follow markedly sound physical health, or unusually high intelligence. Instead, they tended to have an advantageous temperament/personality style, and negligible family history of mental disorder. As adults, they report superior educational and occupational attainment, greater life satisfaction, and higher-quality relationships. Our findings draw attention to “enduring mental health” as a revealing psychological phenotype and suggest it deserves further study. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2017 APA, all rights reserved)},
  doi      = {10.1037/abn0000232},
  keywords = {*Epidemiology *Mental Disorders *Mental Health Diagnosis Well Being},
}

﻿
@Article{Caspi2020,
  author   = {Caspi, Avshalom and Houts, Renate M. and Ambler, Antony and Danese, Andrea and Elliott, Maxwell L. and Hariri, Ahmad and Harrington, HonaLee and Hogan, Sean and Poulton, Richie and Ramrakha, Sandhya and Rasmussen, Line J. Hartmann and Reuben, Aaron and Richmond-Rakerd, Leah and Sugden, Karen and Wertz, Jasmin and Williams, Benjamin S. and Moffitt, Terrie E.},
  journal  = {JAMA Network Open},
  title    = {Longitudinal assessment of mental health disorders and comorbidities across 4 decades among participants in the {Dunedin} birth cohort study},
  year     = {2020},
  number   = {4},
  pages    = {e203221–e203221},
  volume   = {3},
  abstract = {Mental health professionals typically encounter patients at 1 point in patients’ lives. This cross-sectional window understandably fosters focus on the current presenting diagnosis. Research programs, treatment protocols, specialist clinics, and specialist journals are oriented to presenting diagnoses, on the assumption that diagnosis informs about causes and prognosis. This study tests an alternative hypothesis: people with mental disorders experience many different kinds of disorders across diagnostic families, when followed for 4 decades.To describe mental disorder life histories across the first half of the life course.This cohort study involved participants born in New Zealand from 1972 to 1973 who were enrolled in the population-representative Dunedin Study. Participants were observed from birth to age 45 years (until April 2019). Data were analyzed from May 2019 to January 2020.Diagnosed impairing disorders were assessed 9 times from ages 11 to 45 years. Brain function was assessed through neurocognitive examinations conducted at age 3 years, neuropsychological testing during childhood and adulthood, and midlife neuroimaging-based brain age.Of 1037 original participants (535 male [51.6\%]), 1013 had mental health data available. The proportions of participants meeting the criteria for a mental disorder were as follows: 35% (346 of 975) at ages 11 to 15 years, 50% (473 of 941) at age 18 years, 51\% (489 of 961) at age 21 years, 48\% (472 of 977) at age 26 years, 46\% (444 of 969) at age 32 years, 45\% (429 of 955) at age 38 years, and 44\% (407 of 927) at age 45 years. The onset of the disorder occurred by adolescence for 59\% of participants (600 of 1013), eventually affecting 86\% of the cohort (869 of 1013) by midlife. By age 45 years, 85\% of participants (737 of 869) with a disorder had accumulated comorbid diagnoses. Participants with adolescent-onset disorders subsequently presented with disorders at more past-year assessments (r = 0.71; 95\% CI, 0.68 to 0.74; P < .001) and met the criteria for more diverse disorders (r = 0.64; 95\% CI, 0.60 to 0.67; P < .001). Confirmatory factor analysis summarizing mental disorder life histories across 4 decades identified a general factor of psychopathology, the p-factor. Longitudinal analyses showed that high p-factor scores (indicating extensive mental disorder life histories) were antedated by poor neurocognitive functioning at age 3 years (r = −0.18; 95\% CI, −0.24 to −0.12; P < .001), were accompanied by childhood-to-adulthood cognitive decline (r = −0.11; 95\% CI, −0.17 to −0.04; P < .001), and were associated with older brain age at midlife (r = 0.14; 95\% CI, 0.07 to 0.20; P < .001).These findings suggest that mental disorder life histories shift among different successive disorders. Data from the present study, alongside nationwide data from Danish health registers, inform a life-course perspective on mental disorders. This perspective cautions against overreliance on diagnosis-specific research and clinical protocols.},
  doi      = {10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2020.3221},
  url      = {https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2020.3221},
}

﻿
@Book{Vaillant2012,
  author    = {Vaillant, George E.},
  publisher = {Harvard University Press},
  title     = {Triumphs of Experience: {The} Men of the {Harvard Grant Study}},
  year      = {2012},
  doi       = {10.2307/j.ctt2jbxs1},
}

﻿
@Book{Glueck1950,
  author    = {Glueck, Sheldon and Glueck, Eleanor},
  publisher = {Harvard University Press},
  title     = {Unraveling juvenile delinquency},
  year      = {1950},
}

﻿
@Misc{Mineo2017,
  author = {Mineo, Liz},
  note   = {(archived at https://perma.cc/V7NE-2FTZ)},
  title  = {Good genes are nice, but joy is better},
  year   = {2017},
  url    = {https://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2017/04/over-nearly-80-years-harvard-study-has-been-showing-how-to-live-a-healthy-and-happy-life/},
}

﻿
@Article{Dodge1990,
  author   = {Dodge, Kenneth A. and Bates, John E. and Pettit, Gregory S.},
  journal  = {Science},
  title    = {Mechanisms in the cycle of violence},
  year     = {1990},
  note     = {10.1126/science.2270481 Journal; Peer Reviewed Journal; Journal Article},
  number   = {4988},
  pages    = {1678–1683},
  volume   = {250},
  abstract = {Examined 2 questions concerning the effect of physical abuse in early childhood on the child's development of aggressive behavior. The 1st question is whether abuse has deleterious effects. Results from 309 4-yr-old children indicate that physical abuse is a risk factor for later aggressive behavior even when the other ecological and biological factors are known. The 2nd question concerns the processes by which antisocial development occurs in abused children. Abused Ss tended to acquire deviant patterns of processing social information, and these may have mediated the development of aggressive behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2009 APA )},
  doi      = {10.1126/science.2270481},
  keywords = {Aggressive Behavior Child Abuse Cognitive Processes Early Experience Physical Abuse physical abuse, risk for & occurrence of later aggressive behavior & deviant patterns of social information processing, 4 yr olds, 4â€“8 mo followup 3230 Behavior Disorders & Antisocial Behavior},
  url      = {http://www.sciencemag.org/content/250/4988/1678},
}

﻿
@Article{Lansford2010,
  author  = {Lansford, Jennifer E. and Malone, Patrick S. and Dodge, Kenneth A. and Pettit, Gregory S. and Bates, John E.},
  journal = {Development and Psychopathology},
  title   = {Developmental cascades of peer rejection, social information processing biases, and aggression during middle childhood},
  year    = {2010},
  number  = {3},
  pages   = {593–602},
  volume  = {22},
  doi     = {10.1017/S0954579410000301},
  url     = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0954579410000301},
}

﻿
@Book{Sroufe2005,
  author    = {Sroufe, L.A. and Egeland, B. and Carlson, E.A. and Collins, W.A.},
  publisher = {Guilford Publications},
  title     = {The Development of the Person: {The} {Minnesota} Study of Risk and Adaptation from Birth to Adulthood},
  year      = {2005},
}

﻿
@Article{Girme2021,
  author   = {Girme, Yuthika U. and Jones, Rachael E. and Fleck, Cory and Simpson, Jeffry A. and Overall, Nickola C.},
  journal  = {Emotion},
  title    = {Infants’ attachment insecurity predicts attachment-relevant emotion regulation strategies in adulthood},
  year     = {2021},
  number   = {2},
  pages    = {260–272},
  volume   = {21},
  abstract = {Infant attachment is theorized to lay the foundation of emotion regulation across the life span. However, testing this proposition requires prospective designs examining whether attachment assessed in infancy predicts emotion regulation strategies observed in adult relationships. Using unique data from the Minnesota Longitudinal Study of Risk and Adaptation, we examined whether infant attachment assessed at 12 and 18 months in the Strange Situation were associated with attachment-relevant emotion regulation strategies coded from video-recorded conflict discussions with romantic partners at ages 20, 23, 26, and/or 35. The current research first integrated the developmental and emotion regulation literatures to identify three specific attachment-relevant emotion regulation strategies. Balanced-regulation involves being open, approach-orientated, and engaging in collaborative problem-solving. Hypo-regulation involves suppressing emotions, disengaging from close others, and engaging in superficial problem-solving. Hyper-regulation involves exaggerating emotional expressions, ruminating, and being self-focused in processing issues. Compared to stable secure infants (secure at 12 and 18 months), stable insecure infants (insecure at 12 and 18 months) displayed worse balanced-regulation and greater hypo-regulation strategies, and unstable insecure infants (insecure at 12 or 18 months) displayed greater hyper-regulation strategies, in relationship-threatening situations 20–35 years later. Conceptually replicating these results, greater friendship insecurity at age 16 predicted worse balanced-regulation and greater hypo- and hyper-regulation strategies during relationship-threatening situations in adulthood. These findings highlight that infant attachment insecurity is associated with distinct emotion regulation strategies in adulthood 20–35 years later. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2025 APA, all rights reserved)},
  doi      = {10.1037/emo0000721},
  keywords = {*Age Differences *Attachment Behavior *Emotional Regulation *Emotional Security *Problem Solving Adaptation Conflict Romance},
}

@Article{Nivison2024,
  author   = {Nivison, Marissa D. and Labella, Madelyn H. and Raby, K. Lee and Doom, Jenalee R. and Martin, Jodi and Johnson, William F. and Zamir, Osnat and Englund, Michelle M. and Simpson, Jeffry A. and Carlson, Elizabeth A. and Roisman, Glenn I.},
  journal  = {Development and Psychopathology},
  title    = {Insights into child abuse and neglect: {Findings} from the {Minnesota Longitudinal Study of Risk and Adaptation}},
  year     = {2024},
  number   = {5},
  pages    = {2499–2511},
  volume   = {36},
  abstract = {The Minnesota Longitudinal Study of Risk and Adaptation (MLSRA) is a landmark prospective, longitudinal study of human development focused on a sample of mothers experiencing poverty and their firstborn children. Although the MLSRA pioneered a number of important topics in the area of social and emotional development, it began with the more specific goal of examining the antecedents of child maltreatment. From that foundation and for more than 40 years, the study has produced a significant body of research on the origins, sequelae, and measurement of childhood abuse and neglect. The principal objectives of this report are to document the early history of the MLSRA and its contributions to the study of child maltreatment and to review and summarize results from the recently updated childhood abuse and neglect coding of the cohort, with particular emphasis on findings related to adult adjustment. While doing so, we highlight key themes and contributions from Dr Dante Cicchetti’s body of research and developmental psychopathology perspective to the MLSRA, a project launched during his tenure as a graduate student at the University of Minnesota.},
  doi      = {10.1017/S0954579424000865},
  keywords = {Child abuse and neglect maltreament prospective longitudinal study},
  url      = {https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/D6AC2CA0EE0808CB51454FCE405A22A1},
}

﻿
@Article{Harris2019,
  author  = {Harris, Kathleen Mullan and Halpern, Carolyn Tucker and Whitsel, Eric A and Hussey, Jon M and Killeya-Jones, Ley A and Tabor, Joyce and Dean, Sarah C},
  journal = {International Journal of Epidemiology},
  title   = {Cohort Profile: {The} {National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health} ({Add Health})},
  year    = {2019},
  number  = {5},
  pages   = {1415–1415k},
  volume  = {48},
  doi     = {10.1093/ije/dyz115},
  url     = {https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/dyz115},
}

﻿
@Article{Chumlea2012,
  author  = {Chumlea, W. M. C. and Choh, A. and Lee, M. and Towne, B. and Duren, D. and Siervogel, R. M. and Czerwmski, S.},
  journal = {The Journal of Frailty & Aging},
  title   = {Maintaining function with aging what we have learned from the {Fels Longitudinal Study}},
  year    = {2012},
  number  = {2},
  pages   = {50–51},
  volume  = {1},
  doi     = {10.14283/jfa.2012.9},
}

﻿
@Article{Vandell2023,
  author   = {Vandell, Deborah Lowe and Gülseven, Zehra},
  journal  = {Annual Review of Developmental Psychology},
  title    = {The {Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development} ({SECCYD}): {Studying} Development from Infancy to Adulthood},
  year     = {2023},
  pages    = {331–354},
  volume   = {5},
  abstract = {The National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development (SECCYD) is a comprehensive study of human development that has followed participants from birth (N = 1,364) to age 26 (N = 814). Observations, diagnostic procedures, standardized tests, and questionnaires were used to measure five developmental contexts (early care and education, home, school, out of school, and neighborhoods) and three developmental domains (social–emotional, cognitive–academic, and physical–biological). Measures were repeated over time so that stability, change, and growth trajectories of both contexts and developmental domains could be studied. The goals of this review are threefold: (a) to acquaint readers with the depth and breadth of measures available in this public data set, (b) to provide an overview of longitudinal findings that extend the SECCYD to the end of high school and age 26, and (c) to highlight promising areas for future research.},
  doi      = {10.1146/annurev-devpsych-120621-035345},
  keywords = {developmental contexts social–emotional development cognitive–academic development physical–biological development longitudinal research},
  url      = {https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-devpsych-120621-035345},
}

﻿
@Article{Kim2009,
  author   = {Kim, Hyoun K. and Capaldi, Deborah M. and Pears, Katherine C. and Kerr, David C. R. and Owen, Lee D.},
  journal  = {Criminal Behaviour and Mental Health},
  title    = {Intergenerational transmission of internalising and externalising behaviours across three generations: {Gender}-specific pathways},
  year     = {2009},
  number   = {2},
  pages    = {125–141},
  volume   = {19},
  abstract = {Abstract Background Few studies have examined gender-specific pathways in the intergenerational transmission of internalising and externalising behaviours across three generations. Aim The current study considered both parental figures' internalising and externalising symptoms simultaneously and tested path models of the transmission of internalising and externalising symptoms from Generation 1 (G1) to Generation 2 (G2) and from G2 to Generation 3 (G3) by focusing on gender-specific pathways. Method The study used data from the Oregon Youth Study of 206 young men and two associated studies of their intimate partners (Couples Study) and children (Three-Generational Study) over 20 years. Results Findings indicated that, in general, mothers' internalising behaviour showed robust influence on offspring's internalising symptoms across three generations, regardless of gender of the child. G2 men's externalising behaviour was further predicted by G1 mothers' internalising as well as externalising behaviour, albeit the latter was only marginally significant. G3 girls' internalising and externalising behaviour was predicted by their fathers' corresponding behaviour. Overall, fathers' influence on their sons was limited. Conclusion The findings shed important light on potential gender-specific mechanisms of intergenerational transmission of internalising and externalising behaviour. Copyright (c) 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.},
  doi      = {10.1002/cbm.708},
  url      = {https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/cbm.708},
}

﻿
@Article{Broidy2003,
  author   = {Broidy, Lisa M. and Nagin, Daniel S. and Tremblay, Richard E. and Bates, John E. and Brame, Bobby and Dodge, Kenneth A. and Fergusson, David and Horwood, John L. and Loeber, Rolf and Laird, Robert and Lynam, Donald R. and Moffitt, Terrie E. and Pettit, Gregory S. and Vitaro, Frank},
  journal  = {Developmental Psychology},
  title    = {Developmental trajectories of childhood disruptive behaviors and adolescent delinquency: {A} six-site, cross-national study},
  year     = {2003},
  note     = {U New Mexico, Dept of Sociology, Albuquerque, NM, US. Release Date: 20060710. Publication Type: Journal, Peer Reviewed Journal. Media Covered: Print. Media Available: Electronic; Print. Document Type: Journal Article. Language: English. Major Descriptor: Behavior Problems; Cross Cultural Differences; Development; Juvenile Delinquency; Violence. Minor Descriptor: Adolescent Development; Aggressive Behavior; Behavior Disorders; Childhood Development; Conduct Disorder; Human Sex Differences; Hyperkinesis; Mathematical Modeling. Classification: Behavior Disorders & Antisocial Behavior (3230); Population: Human (10); Male (30); Female (40); Location: Canada; New Zealand; US. Age Group: Childhood (birth-12 yrs) (100); School Age (6-12 yrs) (180); Adolescence (13-17 yrs) (200); Adulthood (18 yrs & older) (300); . Methodology: Empirical Study; Longitudinal Study. References Available: Y.. Issue Publication Date: Mar, 2003. Publication History: Accepted Date: Dec 30, 2001; Revised Date: Dec 28, 2001; First Submitted Date: Oct 19, 2000. Copyright: American Psychological Association. 2003.;},
  number   = {2},
  pages    = {222–245},
  volume   = {39},
  abstract = {This study used data from 6 sites and 3 countries to examine the developmental course of physical aggression in childhood and to analyze its linkage to violent and nonviolent offending outcomes in adolescence. The results indicate that among boys there is continuity in problem behavior from childhood to adolescence and that such continuity is especially acute when early problem behavior takes the form of physical aggression. Chronic physical aggression during the elementary school years specifically increases the risk for continued physical violence as well as other nonviolent forms of delinquency during adolescence. However, this conclusion is reserved primarily for boys, because the results indicate no clear linkage between childhood physical aggression and adolescent offending among female samples despite notable similarities across male and female samples in the developmental course of physical aggression in childhood. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved). (from the journal abstract)},
  doi      = {10.1037/0012-1649.39.2.222},
  keywords = {developmental trajectories childhood disruptive behavior adolescent delinquency violent delinquency nonviolent delinquency mathematical models cross cultural differences sex differences Behavior Problems Development Juvenile Delinquency Violence Adolescent Development Aggressive Behavior Behavior Disorders Childhood Development Conduct Disorder Human Sex Differences Hyperkinesis Mathematical Modeling},
  url      = {http://ezproxy.lib.indiana.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=pdh&AN=dev-39-2-222&site=ehost-live&scope=site
lbroidy@unm.edu},
}

﻿
@Article{Bongers2004,
  author   = {Bongers, Ilja L. and Koot, Hans M. and Ende, Jan van der and Verhulst, Frank C.},
  journal  = {Child Development},
  title    = {Developmental trajectories of externalizing behaviors in childhood and adolescence},
  year     = {2004},
  number   = {5},
  pages    = {1523–1537},
  volume   = {75},
  abstract = {This article describes the average and group-based developmental trajectories of aggression, opposition, property violations, and status violations using parent reports of externalizing behaviors on a longitudinal multiple birth cohort study of 2,076 children aged 4 to 18 years. Trajectories were estimated from multilevel growth curve analyses and semiparametric mixture models. Overall, males showed higher levels of externalizing behavior than did females. Aggression, opposition, and property violations decreased on average, whereas status violations increased over time. Group-based trajectories followed the shape of the average curves at different levels and were similar for males and females. The trajectories found in this study provide a basis against which deviations from the expected developmental course can be identified and classified as deviant or nondeviant.},
  doi      = {10.1111/j.1467-8624.2004.00755.x},
  url      = {http://www.jstor.org/stable/3696498},
}

﻿
@Article{Huesmann1984,
  author   = {Huesmann, L. Rowell and Eron, Leonard D. and Lefkowitz, Monroe M. and Walder, Leopold O.},
  journal  = {Developmental Psychology},
  title    = {Stability of aggression over time and generations},
  year     = {1984},
  note     = {U Illinois, Chicago. Release Date: 20060329. Publication Type: Journal, Peer Reviewed Journal. Media Covered: Print. Document Type: Journal Article. Language: English. Major Descriptor: Aggressive Behavior; Psychosocial Development. Minor Descriptor: Longitudinal Studies. Classification: Psychosocial & Personality Development (2840); Population: Human (10); . Age Group: Childhood (birth-12 yrs) (100); Adolescence (13-17 yrs) (200); Adulthood (18 yrs & older) (300); . Methodology: Empirical Study; Longitudinal Study. References Available: Y.. Issue Publication Date: Nov, 1984. Copyright: American Psychological Association. 1984.;},
  number   = {6},
  pages    = {1120–1134},
  volume   = {20},
  abstract = {In a study spanning 22 years, data were collected on the aggressiveness of over 600 subjects, their parents, and their children. Subjects who were the more aggressive 8-year-olds at the beginning of the study were discovered to be the more aggressive 30-year-olds at the end of the study. The stability of aggressive behavior was shown to be very similar to the stability of intellectual competence, especially for males. Early aggressiveness was predictive of later serious antisocial behavior, including criminal behavior, spouse abuse, traffic violations, and self-reported physical aggression. Furthermore, the stability of aggression across generations within a family when measured at comparable ages was even higher than the within individual stability across ages. It is concluded that, whatever its causes, aggression can be viewed as a persistent trait that may be influenced by situational variables but possesses substantial cross-situational constancy. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)},
  doi      = {10.1037/0012-1649.20.6.1120},
  keywords = {aggressive behavior Ss studied from age 8 to 30 yrs vs their parents & children Psychosocial Development Longitudinal Studies},
  url      = {http://ezproxy.lib.indiana.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=pdh&AN=dev-20-6-1120&site=ehost-live&scope=site},
}

﻿
@Article{Kokko2009,
  author   = {Kokko, Katja and Pulkkinen, Lea and Huesmann, L. Rowell and Dubow, Eric F. and Boxer, Paul},
  journal  = {Journal of Research on Adolescence (Blackwell Publishing Limited)},
  title    = {Intensity of aggression in childhood as a predictor of different forms of adult aggression: {A} two-country ({Finland} and the {United States}) analysis},
  year     = {2009},
  note     = {Journal of Research on Adolescence (Blackwell Publishing Limited) Source Information: 2009, Vol. 19 Issue 1, p9; Subject Term: AGGRESSION (Psychology); Subject Term: ADOLESCENT psychology -- Research; Subject Term: LONGITUDINAL method; Subject Term: INDIVIDUAL differences; Subject Term: DIFFERENCE (Psychology); Subject Term: ADOLESCENCE; Subject Term: AGE groups; Subject Term: ; Geographic Subject: UNITED States; Geographic Subject: FINLAND; Geographic Subject: ; Number of Pages: 26p; ; Illustrations: 3 Diagrams, 2 Charts; ; Document Type: Article;},
  number   = {1},
  pages    = {9–34},
  volume   = {19},
  abstract = {This study examined the prediction of different forms of adult aggression in 2 countries from child and adolescent aggression. It was based on 2 longitudinal projects: the Jyväskylä Longitudinal Study of Personality and Social Development (JYLS; N=196 boys and 173 girls) conducted in Finland and the Columbia County Longitudinal Study (CCLS; N=436 boys and 420 girls) conducted in the United States. The same peer-nominated items for aggression were used in both studies at age 8; comparable measures of aggression were also available in adolescence (age 14 in the JYLS/19 in the CCLS) and adulthood (ages 36/30 and 42/48). Results showed that in both countries and in both genders, aggression in school age was linked significantly to physical aggression and lack of self-control of anger in adulthood but not to verbal aggression. This differential predictability of aggression over 40 years suggests that individual differences in physical aggression are more determined by lasting individual differences (including emotional reactivity) than are individual differences in verbal aggression. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]
Copyright of Journal of Research on Adolescence (Blackwell Publishing Limited) is the property of Wiley-Blackwell and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)},
  doi      = {10.1111/j.1532-7795.2009.00579.x},
  keywords = {AGGRESSION (Psychology) ADOLESCENT psychology -- Research LONGITUDINAL method INDIVIDUAL differences DIFFERENCE (Psychology) ADOLESCENCE AGE groups UNITED States FINLAND},
  url      = {http://ezproxy.lib.indiana.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=tfh&AN=36551609&site=ehost-live&scope=site},
}

﻿
@Article{Keijsers2012,
  author   = {Keijsers, Loes and Loeber, Rolf and Branje, Susan and Meeus, Wim},
  journal  = {Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry},
  title    = {Parent-child relationships of boys in different offending trajectories. {A} developmental perspective},
  year     = {2012},
  number   = {12},
  pages    = {1222–1232},
  volume   = {53},
  abstract = {Background: This study tested the theoretical assumption that transformations of parent-child relationships in late childhood and adolescence would differ for boys following different offending trajectories. Methods: Using longitudinal multiinformant data of 503 boys (ages 7–19), we conducted Growth Mixture Modeling to extract offending trajectories. Developmental changes in child reports of parent-child joint activities and relationship quality were examined using Latent Growth Curves. Results: Five offending trajectories were found: non-offenders, moderate childhood offenders, adolescent-limited offenders, serious childhood offenders, and serious persistent offenders. Non-offenders reported high and stable levels of relationship quality between age 10 and 16. Adolescent-limited offenders reported a similarly high relationship quality as non-offenders at ages 7 and 10, but a lower and decreasing relationship quality in adolescence. Compared with non-offenders, serious persistent offenders reported poorer parent-child relationship quality at all ages, and a decreasing relationship quality in adolescence. Serious persistent offenders and adolescent-limited offenders reported similar levels and changes in parent-child relationship quality in adolescence. Although serious persistent offenders reported fewer joint activities at age 10 and 13 than non-offenders, a similar linear decrease in joint activities in early to middle adolescence was found for boys in each trajectory. Conclusion: Developmental changes in parent-child relationship quality differ for different types of offenders. This finding has scientific and practical implications.},
  doi      = {10.1111/j.1469-7610.2012.02585.x},
  keywords = {Delinquency offending trajectories parent-child relationship longitudinal growth curve modeling},
  url      = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2012.02585.x},
}

﻿
@Article{Farrington1990,
  author  = {Farrington, David P. and West, Donald J.},
  journal = {Criminality: Personality, behaviour, life history Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag},
  title   = {The {Cambridge Study in Delinquent Development}: {A} long-term follow-up of 411 {London} males},
  year    = {1990},
  doi     = {10.1007/978-3-642-75418-0_9},
}

﻿
@Article{Korhonen2018,
  author  = {Korhonen, Marie and Luoma, Ilona and Salmelin, Raili and Siirtola, Arja and Puura, Kaija},
  journal = {Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry},
  title   = {The trajectories of internalizing and externalizing problems from early childhood to adolescence and young adult outcome},
  year    = {2018},
  number  = {3},
  pages   = {7–12},
  volume  = {2},
}

﻿
@Article{Bista2025,
  author   = {Bista, Sarita and Graham, Petra L. and Kang, Melissa and Lin, Ashleigh and Lymer, Sharyn and Marino, Jennifer L. and Robinson, Monique and Skinner, S. Rachel and Steinbeck, Katharine and Straker, Leon M. and Tait, Robert J.},
  journal  = {Development and Psychopathology},
  title    = {Joint developmental trajectories of internalizing and externalizing problems from mid-childhood to late adolescence and childhood risk factors: {Findings} from a prospective pre-birth cohort},
  year     = {2025},
  number   = {1},
  pages    = {176–191},
  volume   = {37},
  abstract = {There is limited evidence on heterogenous co-developmental trajectories of internalizing (INT) and externalizing (EXT) problems from childhood to adolescence and predictors of these joint trajectories. We utilized longitudinal data from Raine Study participants (n = 2393) to identify these joint trajectories from 5 to 17 years using parallel-process latent class growth analysis and analyze childhood individual and family risk factors predicting these joint trajectories using multinomial logistic regression. Five trajectory classes were identified: Low-problems (Low-INT/Low-EXT, 29%), Moderate Externalizing (Moderate-EXT/Low-INT, 26.5%), Primary Internalizing (Moderate High-INT/Low-EXT, 17.5%), Co-occurring (High-INT/High-EXT, 17%), High Co-occurring (Very High-EXT/High-INT, 10%). Children classified in Co-occurring and High Co-occurring trajectories (27% of the sample) exhibited clinically meaningful co-occurring problem behaviors and experienced more adverse childhood risk-factors than other three trajectories. Compared with Low-problems: parental marital problems, low family income, and absent father predicted Co-occurring and High Co-occurring trajectories; maternal mental health problems commonly predicted Primary Internalizing, Co-occurring, and High Co-occurring trajectories; male sex and parental tobacco-smoking uniquely predicted High Co-occurring membership; other substance smoking uniquely predicted Co-occurring membership; speech difficulty uniquely predicted Primary Internalizing membership; child’s temper-tantrums predicted all four trajectories, with increased odds ratios for High Co-occurring (OR = 8.95) and Co-occurring (OR = 6.07). Finding two co-occurring trajectories emphasizes the importance of early childhood interventions addressing comorbidity.},
  doi      = {10.1017/S0954579423001505},
  keywords = {co-occurring psychopathology externalizing internalizing joint developmental trajectories parallel-process growth mixture modeling},
  url      = {https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/6D761F0ECF49086EEBAFFDCF8CAA5F65},
}

﻿
@Article{Shi2020,
  author   = {Shi, Qinxin and Ettekal, Idean and Deutz, Marike H. F. and Woltering, Steven},
  journal  = {Developmental Psychology},
  title    = {Trajectories of pure and co-occurring internalizing and externalizing problems from early childhood to adolescence: {Associations} with early childhood individual and contextual antecedents},
  year     = {2020},
  note     = {Department of Educational Psychology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, US, ORCID: 0000-0003-2157-0590. Release Date: 20200820. Correction Date: 20200924. Publication Type: Journal (0100), Peer Reviewed Journal (0110). Format Covered: Electronic. Document Type: Journal Article. Language: English. Major Descriptor: Adolescent Development; Early Childhood Development; Externalization; Family Conflict; Internalization. Minor Descriptor: Demographic Characteristics; Intelligence; Peer Relations; Personality; Psychopathology; Resilience (Psychological); Social Acceptance; Teacher Student Interaction; Mixture Modeling. Classification: Developmental Psychology (2800). Population: Human (10); Male (30); Female (40). Location: US. Age Group: Childhood (birth-12 yrs) (100); School Age (6-12 yrs) (180); Adolescence (13-17 yrs) (200). Tests & Measures: Child California Q-Set; Big Five Inventory; Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Achievement Third Edition; Teacher Relationship Inventory; Pictorial Scale of Perceived Competence and Social Acceptance for Young Children DOI: 10.1037/t04621-000; Universal Nonverbal Intelligence Test DOI: 10.1037/t06853-000; Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire DOI: 10.1037/t00540-000. Methodology: Empirical Study; Longitudinal Study; Quantitative Study. Supplemental Data: Tables and Figures Internet; Text Internet. References Available: Y. Page Count: 13. Issue Publication Date: Oct, 2020. Publication History: First Posted Date: Aug 20, 2020; Accepted Date: Jun 23, 2020; Revised Date: May 18, 2020; First Submitted Date: Sep 17, 2019. Copyright Statement: American Psychological Association. 2020. Sponsor: Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, US. Grant: HD39367. Other Details: Jan N. Hughes. Recipients: No recipient indicated},
  number   = {10},
  pages    = {1906–1918},
  volume   = {56},
  abstract = {As internalizing and externalizing problems often co-occur, the current study utilized a longitudinal dataset of 784 at-risk children (predominantly from low-income families and academically at-risk; 52.6% male) followed yearly from Grade 1 to Grade 12 to: (a) explore the heterogeneity in the codevelopment patterns of internalizing and externalizing problems by using a person-centered approach, and (b) investigate early childhood antecedents that might explain differentiated codevelopmental patterns. The antecedents consisted of individual (i.e., ego-resilient personality, intelligence, language ability, gender, and ethnicity) and contextual factors (i.e., maternal support and responsiveness, family socioeconomic adversity, teacher–child relationship conflict, and peer rejection). We identified 4 distinct codevelopment patterns including a chronic co-occurring group (30.1\%), a moderate co-occurring group (28.5\%), a pure-externalizing group (18.6\%), and a low-risk group (22.8\%). While children who belonged to any of the 3 higher risk groups exhibited more adverse early childhood antecedents compared with the low-risk group, the chronic co-occurring group displayed the most severe profiles of early childhood antecedents compared with the moderate co-occurring and the pure-externalizing groups. Common antecedents for the 3 higher risk groups were lower ego-resilient personality, higher teacher–child relationship conflict, being male, and being African American. Low language ability and peer rejection were identified as unique antecedents for the chronic co-occurring group. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved)},
  doi      = {10.1037/dev0001095},
  keywords = {internalizing externalizing co-occurrence growth mixture modeling developmental psychopathology Adolescent Development Early Childhood Development Externalization Family Conflict Internalization Demographic Characteristics Intelligence Peer Relations Personality Psychopathology Resilience (Psychological) Social Acceptance Teacher Student Interaction Mixture Modeling},
  url      = {https://login.proxy.lib.uiowa.edu/login?url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=ip,cookie,uid,url&db=pdh&AN=2020-61351-001},
}

﻿
@Article{KujaHalkola2015,
  author   = {Kuja-Halkola, Ralf and Lichtenstein, Paul and D'Onofrio, Brian M. and Larsson, Henrik},
  journal  = {Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry},
  title    = {Codevelopment of {ADHD} and externalizing behavior from childhood to adulthood},
  year     = {2015},
  number   = {6},
  pages    = {640–647},
  volume   = {56},
  abstract = {Background Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) frequently co-occurs with externalizing disorders, but a clear understanding of the etiologic underpinnings is hampered by the limited understanding of the codevelopment of the traits from childhood into early adulthood. Methods Using a birth cohort of 2600 twins, the Swedish Twin study of Child and Adolescent Development study, assessed at ages 8–9, 13–14, 16–17, and 19–20, we investigated the codevelopment of ADHD and externalizing behavior from childhood to adulthood. The analyses examined ADHD-like and externalizing traits, as rated by twins and their parents using the Attention Problems scale and Externalizing scale of the Child Behavior Checklist, and estimated cross-lagged effects (one trait at one time-point predicting the other at the next). The covariation between the traits were decomposed into stable (effects carried over from the prior time-points) and innovative (new effects for each time-point) sources; each source was further decomposed into additive genetics, shared and nonshared environment. Results The analysis suggested that externalizing traits in middle childhood (age 8–9) predicted ADHD-like traits in early adolescence (age 13–14), whereas the reverse association was nonsignificant. In contrast, ADHD-like traits in lateadolescence (age 16–17) predicted externalizing traits in early adulthood (age 19–20). The correlation between ADHD-like and externalizing traits increased over time. At all time-points, innovative sources contributed substantially to maintained comorbidity. Genetic effects explained 67% of the covariation at each time-point; importantly, nearly 50\% of these effects were innovative. Conclusions This study challenges the belief that ADHD generally precedes externalizing behaviors; rather, change in the etiologic factors across the development is the rule. The effects were due to both new genetic and environmental factors emerging up to young adulthood. Clinicians and researchers needs to consider complex etiologic and developmental models for the comorbidity between ADHD and externalizing behaviors.},
  doi      = {10.1111/jcpp.12340},
  keywords = {ADHD antisocial behavior longitudinal studies comorbidity genetics behavioral},
  url      = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12340},
}

﻿
@Article{Harris2025,
  author  = {Harris, Jordan L. and LeBeau, Brandon and Petersen, Isaac T.},
  journal = {Development and Psychopathology},
  title   = {Reactive and control processes in the development of internalizing and externalizing problems across early childhood to adolescence},
  year    = {2025},
  number  = {2},
  pages   = {836–858},
  volume  = {37},
  doi     = {10.1017/S0954579424000713},
}

﻿
@Article{Nivard2016,
  author   = {Nivard, Michel G. and Lubke, Gitta H. and Dolan, Conor V. and Evans, David M. and St. Pourcain, Beate and Munafò, Marcus R. and Middeldorp, Christel M.},
  journal  = {Development and Psychopathology},
  title    = {Joint developmental trajectories of internalizing and externalizing disorders between childhood and adolescence},
  year     = {2016},
  number   = {3},
  pages    = {919–928},
  volume   = {29},
  abstract = {This study sought to identify trajectories of DSM-IV based internalizing (INT) and externalizing (EXT) problem scores across childhood and adolescence and to provide insight into the comorbidity by modeling the co-occurrence of INT and EXT trajectories. INT and EXT were measured repeatedly between age 7 and age 15 years in over 7,000 children and analyzed using growth mixture models. Five trajectories were identified for both INT and EXT, including very low, low, decreasing, and increasing trajectories. In addition, an adolescent onset trajectory was identified for INT and a stable high trajectory was identified for EXT. Multinomial regression showed that similar EXT and INT trajectories were associated. However, the adolescent onset INT trajectory was independent of high EXT trajectories, and persisting EXT was mainly associated with decreasing INT. Sex and early life environmental risk factors predicted EXT and, to a lesser extent, INT trajectories. The association between trajectories indicates the need to consider comorbidity when a child presents with INT or EXT disorders, particularly when symptoms start early. This is less necessary when INT symptoms start at adolescence. Future studies should investigate the etiology of co-occurring INT and EXT and the specific treatment needs of these severely affected children.},
  doi      = {10.1017/S0954579416000572},
  url      = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0954579416000572},
}

﻿
@Article{Papachristou2020,
  author   = {Papachristou, Efstathios and Flouri, Eirini},
  journal  = {Development and Psychopathology},
  title    = {The codevelopment of internalizing symptoms, externalizing symptoms, and cognitive ability across childhood and adolescence},
  year     = {2020},
  number   = {4},
  pages    = {1375–1389},
  volume   = {32},
  abstract = {Cognitive ability, externalizing symptoms, and internalizing symptoms are correlated in children. However, it is not known why they combine in the general child population over time. To address this, we used data on 17,318 children participating in the UK Millennium Cohort Study and followed-up five times between ages 3 and 14 years. We fitted three parallel-process latent growth curve models to identify the parallel unfolding of children's trajectories of internalizing symptoms, externalizing symptoms, and cognitive ability across this period. We also examined the effects of time-invariant (ethnicity, birth weight, maternal education and age at birth, and breastfeeding status) and time-varying covariates (maternal psychological distress and socioeconomic disadvantage) on the growth parameters of the trajectories. The results showed that the intercepts of the trajectories of cognitive ability and, particularly, externalizing symptoms were inversely correlated. Their linear slopes were also inversely correlated, suggesting parallel development. Internalizing symptoms were correlated positively with externalizing symptoms and inversely (and more modestly) with cognitive ability at baseline, but the slope of internalizing symptoms correlated (positively) only with the slope of externalizing symptoms. The covariates predicted 9\% to 41\% of the variance in the intercepts and slopes of all domains, suggesting they are important common risk factors. Overall, it appears that externalizing symptoms develop in parallel with both cognitive ability and internalizing symptoms from early childhood through to middle adolescence. Children on an increasing trajectory of externalizing symptoms are likely both increasing in internalizing symptoms and decreasing in cognitive skills as well, and are thus an important group to target for intervention.},
  doi      = {10.1017/S0954579419001330},
  keywords = {adolescence childhood cognitive ability externalizing symptoms internalizing symptoms trajectories},
  url      = {https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/D51A525135D69D0ED58D68BECFEC1F81},
}

﻿
@Article{Speyer2022,
  author   = {Speyer, Lydia Gabriela and Neaves, Samuel and Hall, Hildigunnur Anna and Hemani, Gibran and Lombardo, Michael Vincent and Murray, Aja Louise and Auyeung, Bonnie and Luciano, Michelle},
  journal  = {Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry},
  title    = {Polygenic risks for joint developmental trajectories of internalizing and externalizing problems: {Findings} from the {ALSPAC} cohort},
  year     = {2022},
  number   = {8},
  pages    = {948–956},
  volume   = {63},
  abstract = {Background Joint developmental trajectories of internalizing and externalizing problems show considerable heterogeneity; however, this can be parsed into a small number of meaningful subgroups. Doing so offered insights into risk factors that lead to different patterns of internalizing/externalizing trajectories. However, despite both domains of problems showing strong heritability, no study has yet considered genetic risks as predictors of joint internalizing/externalizing problem trajectories. Methods Using parallel process latent class growth analysis, we estimated joint developmental trajectories of internalizing and externalizing difficulties assessed across ages 4 to 16 using the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire. Multinomial logistic regression was used to evaluate a range of demographic, perinatal, maternal mental health, and child and maternal polygenic predictors of group membership. Participants included 11,049 children taking part in the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children. Polygenic data were available for 7,127 children and 6,836 mothers. Results A 5-class model was judged optimal: Unaffected, Moderate Externalizing Symptoms, High Externalizing Symptoms, Moderate Internalizing and Externalizing Symptoms and High Internalizing and Externalizing Symptoms. Male sex, lower maternal age, maternal mental health problems, maternal smoking during pregnancy, higher child polygenic risk scores for ADHD and lower polygenic scores for IQ distinguished affected classes from the unaffected class. Conclusions While affected classes could be relatively well separated from the unaffected class, phenotypic and polygenic predictors were limited in their ability to distinguish between different affected classes. Results thus add to existing evidence that internalizing and externalizing problems have mostly shared risk factors.},
  doi      = {10.1111/jcpp.13549},
  url      = {https://acamh.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/jcpp.13549},
}

﻿
@Article{Zhai2026,
  author   = {Zhai, Ruyue and Zhang, Libin and Cheng, Gang},
  journal  = {Journal of Affective Disorders},
  title    = {Developmental trajectories of emotional and behavioral dysregulation from ages 3 to 17: {Early} predictors and adolescent developmental outcomes},
  year     = {2026},
  pages    = {121556},
  volume   = {405},
  abstract = {Background Emotional and behavioral dysregulation (EBD) is a core transdiagnostic risk factor for child and adolescent psychopathology. However, its developmental course from early childhood through adolescence and the continuity between early predictors and later outcomes remain insufficiently understood. Methods Participants were drawn from the UK Millennium Cohort Study (N = 11,881). EBD was measured using the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire at ages 3, 5, 7, 11, 14, and 17. Latent class growth models identified distinct EBD trajectories, and the 3-step/BCH method examined associations with age-17 outcomes, including internalizing, externalizing, and substance use. Logistic regression analyses evaluated individual and family predictors of trajectory membership. Results EBD in children aged 3–17 follows four developmental trajectories: “Stable-low”, “Decreasing”, “Increasing”, and “Stable-high”. Adolescents in the “Increasing” and “Stable-high” showed heightened risks of peer victimization, self-injury, psychological distress, and lower well-being and self-esteem, while decreasing EBD was linked to reduced risks. Alcohol use followed a distinct pattern, with higher levels in the “Stable-low”. Furthermore, gender differences were observed across trajectories. Lower family income, greater mother-child conflict, and maternal smoking during pregnancy increased the likelihood of “Increasing” or “Stable-high”, whereas temperamental regularity, school readiness, and positive parent-child relationships were protective. Conclusion EBD follows heterogeneous developmental pathways with significant implications for adolescent mental health and substance use. These trajectories are shaped by the interplay of individual and family factors. Interventions should target prenatal health, early temperament, and family dynamics to promote long-term adjustment.},
  doi      = {10.1016/j.jad.2026.121556},
  keywords = {Emotional and behavioral dysregulation Developmental outcome Predictors Developmental trajectory Ages 3–17},
  url      = {https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0165032726004076},
}

﻿
@Article{Kjeldsen2021,
  author   = {Kjeldsen, Anne and Nes, Ragnhild Bang and Sanson, Ann and Ystrom, Eivind and Karevold, Evalill Bølstad},
  journal  = {Development and Psychopathology},
  title    = {Understanding trajectories of externalizing problems: {Stability} and emergence of risk factors from infancy to middle adolescence},
  year     = {2021},
  number   = {1},
  pages    = {264–283},
  volume   = {33},
  abstract = {Despite considerable efforts to understand the processes that underlie the development of externalizing behavior problems, it is still unclear why externalizing problems remain chronically high for some children, emerge early and cease by late childhood for others, and arise in adolescence in some cases. The purpose of this study was to examine how a wide range of child and family risk factors are linked to trajectories of externalizing behavior and how these relationships vary from infancy to middle adolescence. We used data from the community-based Norwegian Tracking Opportunities and Problems (TOPP) study sample (n = 921). A Cholesky factorization model was specified to separate stable and emerging risk doses across four developmental periods (infancy, early and middle childhood, and middle adolescence). Children in the High Stable class were characterized by substantially elevated risk levels in multiple domains throughout the study period. Children in the High Childhood Limited class had very high levels of temperamental emotionality, internalizing symptoms, and maternal mental distress, suggesting a substantial intrinsic emotional basis for their externalizing problems. Intrinsic factors seemed less salient for the Adolescent Onset class. These findings emphasize the need for a dynamic perspective on risk factors and support the importance of prevention and intervention efforts across multiple domains from early childhood and throughout adolescence.},
  doi      = {10.1017/S0954579419001755},
  keywords = {adolescence externalizing infancy risk factors trajectories},
  url      = {https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/2585013FA3734C830B2FD387E8A3120F},
}

﻿
@Article{Stringer2020,
  author   = {Stringer, Dominic and Kent, Rachel and Briskman, Jackie and Lukito, Steve and Charman, Tony and Baird, Gillian and Lord, Catherine and Pickles, Andrew and Simonoff, Emily},
  journal  = {Autism},
  title    = {Trajectories of emotional and behavioral problems from childhood to early adult life},
  year     = {2020},
  number   = {4},
  pages    = {1011–1024},
  volume   = {24},
  abstract = {Little is known about their stability and the factors that influence their persistence or change over the life-course. To address this, we use data from 158 participants from the Special Needs and Autism Project cohort studied at three time-points from 12 to 23 years. We used latent growth models to study the role of child, family, and contextual characteristics on the conduct, emotional, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder domains of the parent-reported Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire. Symptoms decreased significantly over time for all three domains, but many participants still remained above the published cutoffs for likely disorder on at least one of the three domains. Individual trajectories showed high levels of persistence. Higher initial adaptive function and language levels predicted a greater decline in conduct and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder symptoms. In contrast, increased emotional symptoms were predicted by higher language functioning, lower levels of autism symptom severity and higher parental education. Greater neighborhood deprivation was associated with more conduct problems but also a greater decline over time. Our findings highlight that it may be possible to accurately predict mental health trajectories over this time period, which could help parents and carers in planning and help professionals target resources more efficiently.Lay Abstract Although mental health problems are common in autism, relatively little is known about their stability and the factors that influence their persistence or change over the life-course. To address this, we use data from the Special Needs and Autism Project (SNAP) cohort studied at three time-points from 12 to 23 years. Using the parent-reported Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) domains of conduct, emotional, and ADHD symptoms, we evaluated the role of child, family, and contextual characteristics on these three trajectories. Symptoms decreased significantly over time for all three domains, but many participants still scored above the published disorder cutoffs. Individuals showed high levels of persistence. Higher initial adaptive function and language levels predicted a greater decline in conduct and ADHD symptoms. In contrast, higher language functioning was associated with higher levels of emotional symptoms, as was lower levels of autism symptom severity and higher parental education. Those with higher neighborhood deprivation had higher initial conduct problems but a steeper decline over time. Our findings highlight that it may be possible to accurately predict mental health trajectories over this time period, which could help parents and carers in planning and help professionals target resources more efficiently.},
  doi      = {10.1177/1362361320908972},
  keywords = {autism, emotional and behavioral problems, longitudinal, mental disorders, Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire},
  url      = {https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1362361320908972},
}

﻿
@Article{Gornik2023,
  author   = {Gornik, Allison E. and Clark, D. Angus and Durbin, C. Emily and Zucker, Robert A.},
  journal  = {Development and Psychopathology},
  title    = {Individual differences in the development of youth externalizing problems predict a broad range of adult psychosocial outcomes},
  year     = {2023},
  number   = {2},
  pages    = {630–651},
  volume   = {35},
  abstract = {This study examined how youth aggressive and delinquent externalizing problem behaviors across childhood and adolescence are connected to consequential psychosocial life outcomes in adulthood. Using data from a longitudinal, high-risk sample (N = 1069) that assessed children and their parents regularly from early childhood (ages 3–5) through adulthood, multilevel growth factors of externalizing behaviors were used to predict adult outcomes (age 24–31), providing a sense of how externalizing problems across development were related to these outcomes via maternal, paternal, teacher, and child report. Findings indicated strong support for the lasting connections between youth externalizing problems with later educational attainment and legal difficulties, spanning informants and enduring beyond other meaningful contributors (i.e., child sex, cognitive ability, parental income and education, parental mental health and relationship quality). Some support was also found, although less consistently, linking externalizing problems and later alcohol use as well as romantic relationship quality. Delinquent/rule-breaking behaviors were often stronger predictors of later outcomes than aggressive behaviors. Taken together, these results indicate the importance of the role youth externalizing behaviors have in adult psychosocial functioning one to two decades later.},
  doi      = {10.1017/S0954579421001772},
  keywords = {aggression assessment delinquency externalizing problems longitudinal outcomes psychosocial development},
  url      = {https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/926196A4CEDF8D6286053DDC09E4DC57},
}

﻿
@Article{Kjeldsen2016,
  author   = {Kjeldsen, Anne and Nilsen, Wendy and Gustavson, Kristin and Skipstein, Anni and Melkevik, Ole and Karevold, Evalill B.},
  journal  = {Journal of Research on Adolescence},
  title    = {Predicting Well-Being and Internalizing Symptoms in Late Adolescence From Trajectories of Externalizing Behavior Starting in Infancy},
  year     = {2016},
  number   = {4},
  pages    = {991–1008},
  volume   = {26},
  abstract = {This study aimed to examine the long-term prediction of well-being and internalizing symptoms from trajectories of externalizing behavior problems in 921 children from a population-based sample. We found that a high stable trajectory of externalizing behavior from infancy (age 1.5) to mid-adolescence (age 14.5) predicted lower scores on life satisfaction and flourishing for both girls and boys (age 18.5). The high stable trajectory also predicted higher levels of depressive symptoms in boys and anxiety symptoms in girls (age 18.5). The findings are noteworthy as they document how a person-oriented study of externalizing behavior problems starting in infancy can predict well-being and internalizing in late adolescence. The findings underline the importance of early health promotion and problem intervention efforts.},
  doi      = {10.1111/jora.12252},
  url      = {https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/jora.12252},
}

﻿
@Book{Farrington2023,
  author    = {Farrington, David P. and Piquero, Alex R. and Jennings, Wesley G. and Jolliffe, Darrick},
  publisher = {Springer New York},
  title     = {Offending from childhood to late middle age: {Recent} results from the {Cambridge Study in Delinquent Development}},
  year      = {2023},
  address   = {New York, NY},
  series    = {Offending from Childhood to Late Middle Age: Recent Results from the Cambridge Study in Delinquent Development},
  abstract  = {Life-course research has benefited recently from the development and application of advanced statistical methods, most notably group-based trajectory modeling (GBTM). These methods have allowed life-course researchers to assess taxonomies of offending and identify distinct offender trajectories. Guided by this methodological framework, this chapter offers the most comprehensive trajectory analyses to date among the Cambridge Study in Delinquent Development (CSDD) males from ages 10 to 61. Specifically, trajectory solutions are identified across a series of age ranges (e.g., ages 10–16; ages 10–24; ages 10–32; ages 10–40; ages 10–48; ages 10–56; and ages 10–61). Subsequent analyses focus on comparing the stability of trajectory solutions across age ranges and the ability of childhood risk factors to differentiate trajectory groups generally and among CSDD males who evince the most childhood risk specifically. Finally, the association between premature death and trajectory group membership is also explored.},
  doi       = {10.1007/978-1-0716-3335-9_5},
  pages     = {47–71},
}

﻿
@Article{ChenPM,
  author  = {Chen, Siyuan Marco and Bauer, Daniel J.},
  journal = {Psychological Methods},
  title   = {Modeling construct change over time amidst potential changes in construct measurement: {A} longitudinal moderated factor analysis approach},
  year    = {in press },
  doi     = {10.1037/met0000685},
}

@Article{ChenMBR,
  author   = {Chen, Siyuan Marco and Bauer, Daniel J.},
  journal  = {Multivariate Behavioral Research},
  title    = {Improving the evaluation of construct change over time: {Advantages} of longitudinal moderated nonlinear factor analysis over conventional first-order growth models},
  year     = {in press },
  note     = {doi: 10.1080/00273171.2026.2640576},
  pages    = {1–27},
  abstract = {Conventional growth curve models, often fitted to sum or mean scores of scale responses, do not account for potential changes in item measurement unrelated to construct growth (i.e. differential item functioning; DIF). An untested assumption is that the construct is stably measured over time. When this assumption is incorrect, estimates of construct change obtained from conventional growth models may be biased. To address this issue, we recently proposed a new, flexible second-order growth model based upon a longitudinal extension of moderated nonlinear factor analysis (MNLFA; Chen & Bauer) that allows for DIF from categorical or continuous covariates that may or may not vary over time (e.g. sex, age, age ? sex). Further, we applied Bayesian regularization to evaluate DIF effects across multiple sources simultaneously without imposing item equality assumptions (i.e. anchor items). In this paper, we present a simulation study to validate the model?s performance in detecting DIF over time and between groups. Results indicate that the proposed approach effectively detects DIF without predetermined anchor items and avoids the biased growth estimates consistently observed for conventional models fitted to mean scores. We demonstrate the utility of the method in an empirical example on child externalizing behaviors.},
  doi      = {10.1080/00273171.2026.2640576},
  url      = {https://doi.org/10.1080/00273171.2026.2640576},
}

﻿
@Book{LeBlanc2021,
  author    = {Le Blanc, Marc},
  publisher = {Springer},
  title     = {The development of antisocial behavior and crime},
  year      = {2021},
  doi       = {10.1007/978-3-030-68429-7},
}

﻿
@Article{Nickerson2026,
  author   = {Nickerson, Amanda B. and Fredrick, Stephanie S.},
  journal  = {Annual Review of Clinical Psychology},
  title    = {Cyberbullying and Mental Health in Children and Adolescents},
  year     = {2026},
  pages    = {559–586},
  volume   = {22},
  abstract = {Cyberbullying is a growing public health concern given its increasing prevalence, connection to mental health problems, and broader concerns about youth social media use. In this review, we define cyberbullying and its forms and provide information on prevalence and trends. We then contextualize cyberbullying within the larger research literature on digital technology use and mental health, detailing how this relationship varies depending on individual characteristics and how the technologies are being used. We then summarize the research on concurrent and long-term impacts of cyberbullying victimization and perpetration on internalizing and externalizing symptoms as well as the impacts on youth well-being. Mediating and moderating mechanisms that exacerbate risk and protect youth from adverse mental health impacts of cyberbullying are then explored. The evidence supporting cyberbullying prevention in school-based contexts and involving families is then presented. Finally, we discuss challenges in existing research, areas in need of further empirical investigation, and implications for practice and policy.},
  doi      = {10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-061324-073435},
  keywords = {adolescents mental health youth prevention cyberbullying},
  url      = {https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-061324-073435},
}

﻿
@Article{Elliott1980,
  author   = {Elliott, Delbert S. and Ageton, Suzanne S.},
  journal  = {American Sociological Review},
  title    = {Reconciling race and class differences in self-reported and official estimates of delinquency},
  year     = {1980},
  number   = {1},
  pages    = {95–110},
  volume   = {45},
  abstract = {[This paper addresses the general question of whether or not the satisfactory resolution of the methodological criticisms of self-report research will result in greater consistency between self-reported and official data with respect to the race and class distributions of delinquent behavior. We review the specific methodological criticisms of self-report delinquency (SRD) research; discuss the use of a new SRD measure in a national youth study; compare the race/class findings of this study with previous SRD research and with official arrest data; and examine the epidemiological and theoretical implications of these findings. Both class and race differentials are found in this study. It appears likely that the differences between these findings and those in earlier SRD studies are a result of differences in the specific SRD measures used. Additionally, these findings suggest a logical connection between SRD and official measures, and they provide some insight into the mechanism whereby official data produce more extreme race and class (as well as age and sex) differences than do self-report measures. The results of this study also have implications for previous tests of theoretical propositions which used self-report delinquency data. In short, prior self-report measures may not have been sensitive enough to capture the theoretically important differences in delinquency involvement.]},
  doi      = {10.2307/2095245},
  url      = {http://www.jstor.org/stable/2095245},
}

﻿
@Article{Grant1999,
  author   = {Grant, Stanley J. and Aitchison, Tom and Henderson, Esther and Christie, Jim and Zare, Sharam and McMurray, John and Dargie, Henry},
  journal  = {Chest},
  title    = {A comparison of the reproducibility and the sensitivity to change of visual analogue scales, {Borg} scales, and {Likert} scales in normal subjects during submaximal exercise},
  year     = {1999},
  number   = {5},
  pages    = {1208–1217},
  volume   = {116},
  abstract = {Objective To assess which subjective scale, the visual analogue scale (VAS), the Borg CR10 (Borg) scale, or the Likert scale (LS), if any, is decidedly more reproducible and sensitive to change in the assessment of symptoms. Design Prospective clinical study. Setting Exercise laboratory. Participants Twenty-three physically active male subjects (mean ± SD age of 30 ± 4 years old) were recruited. Intervention Each subject attended the exercise laboratory on four occasions at intervals of 1 week. Three subjective scales were used: (1) the VAS (continuous scale); (2) the Borg scale (12 fixed points); and (3) the Likert scale (LS; 5 fixed points). Four identical submaximal tests were given (2 min at 60\% maximum oxygen uptake [o2max] and 6 min at 70% o2max). Two tests were undertaken to assess the reproducibility of scores that were obtained with each subjective scale. Two other tests were undertaken to assess the sensitivity of each scale to a change in symptom perception: a double-blind treatment with propranolol, 80 mg, (ie, active therapy; to increase the sensation of breathlessness and general fatigue during exercise) or matching placebo. The subjective scale scores were measured at 1 min 30 s, 5 min 30 s, and 7 min 15 s of exercise. Reproducibility was defined as the proportion of total variance (ie, between-subject plus within-subject variance) explained by the between-subject variance given as a percentage. Sensitivity was defined as the effect of the active drug therapy over the variation within subjects. Results Overall, the VAS performed best in terms of reproducibility for breathlessness and general fatigue, with reproducibility coefficients as high as 78%. For sensitivity, the VAS was best for breathlessness (ratio, 2.7) and the Borg scale was most sensitive for general fatigue (ratio, 3.0). The relationships between the respective psychological and physiologic variables were reasonably stable throughout the testing procedure, with overall typical correlations of 0.73 to 0.82 Conclusion This study suggests that subjective scales can reproducibly measure symptoms during steady-state exercise and can detect the effect of a drug intervention. The VAS and Borg scales appear to be the best subjective scales for this purpose.},
  doi      = {10.1378/chest.116.5.1208},
  keywords = {breathlessness exercise testing general fatigue reproducibility sensitivity subjective scales},
  url      = {https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0012369215515869},
}

﻿
@Article{Simms2019,
  author   = {Simms, Leonard J. and Zelazny, Kerry and Williams, Trevor F. and Bernstein, Lee},
  journal  = {Psychological Assessment},
  title    = {Does the number of response options matter? {Psychometric} perspectives using personality questionnaire data},
  year     = {2019},
  number   = {4},
  pages    = {557–566},
  volume   = {31},
  abstract = {Psychological tests typically include a response scale whose purpose it is to organize and constrain the options available to respondents and facilitate scoring. One such response scale is the Likert scale, which initially was introduced to have a specific 5-point form. In practice, such scales have varied considerably in the nature and number of response options. However, relatively little consensus exists regarding several questions that have emerged regarding the use of Likert-type items. First, is there a “psychometrically optimal” number of response options? Second, is it better to include an even or odd number of response options? Finally, do visual analog items offer any advantages over Likert-type items? We studied these questions in a sample of 1,358 undergraduates who were randomly assigned to groups to complete a common personality measure using response scales ranging from 2 to 11 options, and a visual analog condition. Results revealed attenuated psychometric precision for response scales with 2 to 5 response options; interestingly, however, the criterion validity results did not follow this pattern. Also, no psychometric advantages were revealed for any response scales beyond 6 options, including visual analogs. These results have important implications for psychological scale development. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved)},
  doi      = {10.1037/pas0000648},
  keywords = {*Personality Measures *Scoring (Testing) *Test Construction *Test Validity Likert Scales Questionnaires Test Reliability},
}

﻿
@Article{Culpepper2013,
  author   = {Culpepper, Steven Andrew},
  journal  = {Applied Psychological Measurement},
  title    = {The reliability and precision of total scores and {IRT} estimates as a function of polytomous {IRT} parameters and latent trait distribution},
  year     = {2013},
  number   = {3},
  pages    = {201–225},
  volume   = {37},
  abstract = {A classic topic in the fields of psychometrics and measurement has been the impact of the number of scale categories on test score reliability. This study builds on previous research by further articulating the relationship between item response theory (IRT) and classical test theory (CTT). Equations are presented for comparing the reliability and precision of scores within the CTT and IRT frameworks. This study presented new results pertaining to the relative precision (i.e., the test score conditional standard error of measurement for a given trait value) of CTT and IRT, and the new results shed light on the conditions where total scores and IRT estimates are more or less precisely measured. The relative reliability of CTT and IRT scores is examined as a function of item characteristics (e.g., locations, category thresholds, and discriminations) and subject characteristics (e.g., the skewness and kurtosis of the latent distribution). CTT total scores were more reliable when the latent distribution was mismatched with category thresholds, but the discrepancy between CTT and IRT declined as the number of scale categories increased. This article also considered the appropriateness of linear approximations of polytomous items and presented circumstances where linear approximations are viable. A linear approximation may be appropriate for items with two response options depending on the item discrimination and the match between the item location and latent distribution. However, linear approximations are biased whenever items are located in the tails of the latent distribution and the bias is larger for more discriminating items.},
  doi      = {10.1177/0146621612470210},
  keywords = {reliability,scale construction,classical test theory,item response theory,polytomous items,information function},
  url      = {https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0146621612470210},
}

﻿
@Article{Burns2001,
  author   = {Burns, G. Leonard and Walsh, James A. and Patterson, David R. and Holte, Carol S. and Sommers-Flanagan, Rita and Parker, Colleen M.},
  journal  = {European Journal of Psychological Assessment},
  title    = {Attention deficit and disruptive behavior disorder symptoms: {Usefulness} of a frequency count rating procedure to measure these symptoms},
  year     = {2001},
  note     = {Washington State U, Dept of Psychology, Pullman, WA, US. Other Publishers: Hogrefe Publishing. Release Date: 20060710. Correction Date: 20190211. Publication Type: Journal (0100), Peer Reviewed Journal (0110). Format Covered: Print. Document Type: Journal Article. Language: EnglishMajor Descriptor: Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity; Conduct Disorder; Oppositional Defiant Disorder; Rating Scales; Symptoms. Minor Descriptor: Stimulus Frequency; Disruptive Behavior Disorders. Classification: Tests & Testing (2220); Psychological & Physical Disorders (3200). Population: Human (10); Male (30); Female (40). Location: US. Age Group: Childhood (birth-12 yrs) (100); Preschool Age (2-5 yrs) (160); School Age (6-12 yrs) (180); Adolescence (13-17 yrs) (200); Adulthood (18 yrs & older) (300); Young Adulthood (18-29 yrs) (320). Methodology: Empirical Study. References Available: Y. Page Count: 11. Issue Publication Date: 2001. Copyright Statement: Hogrefe & Huber Publishers. 2001.},
  number   = {1},
  pages    = {25–35},
  volume   = {17},
  abstract = {Rating scales are commonly used to measure the symptoms of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), oppositional defiant disorder (ODD), and conduct disorder (CD). While these scales have positive psychometric properties, the scales share a potential weakness—the use of vague or subjective rating procedures to measure symptom occurrence (e. g., never, occasionally, often, and very often). Rating procedures based on frequency counts for a specific time interval (e. g., never, once, twice, once per month, once per week, once per day, more than once per day) are less subjective and provide a conceptually better assessment procedure for these symptoms. Such a frequency count procedure was used to obtain parent ratings on the ADHD, ODD, and CD symptoms in a normative (nonclinical) sample of 3,500 children and adolescents (2–19 yrs old). Although the current study does not provide a direct comparison of the 2 types of rating procedures, the results suggest that the frequency count procedure provides a potentially more useful way to measure these symptoms. The implications of the results are noted for the construction of rating scales to measure the ADHD, ODD, and CD symptoms. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved)},
  doi      = {10.1027/1015-5759.17.1.25},
  keywords = {usefulness of frequency count rating scale to measure symptoms 2–19 yr olds with ADHD or oppositional defiant disorder or conduct disorder Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity Conduct Disorder Oppositional Defiant Disorder Rating Scales Symptoms Stimulus Frequency Disruptive Behavior Disorders},
  url      = {https://login.proxy.lib.uiowa.edu/login?url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=ip,cookie,uid,url&db=pdh&AN=2001-14900-003},
}

﻿
@Article{Petersen2026b,
  author  = {Petersen, Isaac T. and Demko, Zachary and Doebler, Philipp and Sabel, Loreen and Oleson, Jacob J. and Krueger, Robert F.},
  journal = {Psychological Assessment},
  title   = {How often is “often”? {Improving} assessment of the externalizing spectrum using absolute frequency},
  year    = {2026},
  note    = {Preprint: https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/r9vqz_v3},
  number  = {4},
  pages   = {295–306},
  volume  = {38},
  doi     = {10.1037/pas0001441},
}

﻿
@Article{Berluti2026,
  author   = {Berluti, Kathryn and Amormino, Paige and Potter, Alexandra and Wshah, Safwan and Marsh, Abigail},
  journal  = {Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry},
  title    = {Machine learning prediction of conduct problems in children using the longitudinal {ABCD Study}},
  year     = {2026},
  number   = {3},
  pages    = {390–399},
  volume   = {67},
  abstract = {Background Children with conduct problems are at elevated risk for negative psychosocial, educational, and behavioral outcomes. Identifying at-risk children can aid in providing timely intervention and prevention, ultimately improving their long-term outcomes. There is a need to develop screening tools to better identify at-risk children who may benefit from early intervention. Methods Data were collected from the longitudinal Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study. Children completed a baseline visit at age 9–10, then returned annually for 3 years (n = 3,517). We used machine learning classifiers (logistic regression, Naïve Bayes, support vector machine, and random forest) to predict conduct problems (i.e., conduct disorder or oppositional defiant disorder) in children after 1, 2, and 3 years. Results The best-performing model (the random forest classifier) predicted children at risk for conduct problems with an accuracy of 90% or greater (AUC = 0.98 at 1 year, AUC = 0.97 at 2 years, AUC = 0.97 at 3 years). A random forest classifier simplified to include only 10 features was able to predict conduct problems nearly as well (AUC = 0.97 at 1 year, AUC = 0.96 at 2 years, AUC = 0.97 at 3 years). Conclusions Using factors previously linked to conduct problems, we built machine learning models to identify predictors of conduct problems in children over a 3-year period. A small number of self-report features can be used to predict persistent conduct problems with 90% or greater specificity and sensitivity up to 3 years after initial assessment. This suggests that parent and child self-report data, along with machine learning, can identify children at risk for persistent conduct problems.},
  doi      = {10.1111/jcpp.70057},
  url      = {https://acamh.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/jcpp.70057},
}

﻿
@Article{Petersen2021b,
  author  = {Petersen, Isaac T. and LeBeau, Brandon},
  journal = {Journal of Educational Psychology},
  title   = {Language ability in the development of externalizing behavior problems in childhood},
  year    = {2021},
  number  = {1},
  pages   = {68–85},
  volume  = {113},
  doi     = {10.1037/edu0000461},
}

﻿
@Article{Curran2014,
  author   = {Curran, Patrick J. and McGinley, James S. and Bauer, Daniel J. and Hussong, Andrea M. and Burns, Alison and Chassin, Laurie and Sher, Kenneth and Zucker, Robert},
  journal  = {Multivariate Behavioral Research},
  title    = {A Moderated Nonlinear Factor Model for the Development of Commensurate Measures in Integrative Data Analysis},
  year     = {2014},
  number   = {3},
  pages    = {214–231},
  volume   = {49},
  abstract = {Integrative data analysis (IDA) is a methodological framework that allows for the fitting of models to data that have been pooled across 2 or more independent sources. IDA offers many potential advantages including increased statistical power, greater subject heterogeneity, higher observed frequencies of low base-rate behaviors, and longer developmental periods of study. However, a core challenge is the estimation of valid and reliable psychometric scores that are based on potentially different items with different response options drawn from different studies. In Bauer and Hussong (2009) we proposed a method for obtaining scores within an IDA called moderated nonlinear factor analysis (MNLFA). Here we move significantly beyond this work in the development of a general framework for estimating MNLFA models and obtaining scale scores across a variety of settings. We propose a 5-step procedure and demonstrate this approach using data drawn from n = 1,972 individuals ranging in age from 11 to 34 years pooled across 3 independent studies to examine the factor structure of 17 binary items assessing depressive symptomatology. We offer substantive conclusions about the factor structure of depression, use this structure to compute individual-specific scale scores, and make recommendations for the use of these methods in practice.},
  doi      = {10.1080/00273171.2014.889594},
  url      = {https://doi.org/10.1080/00273171.2014.889594},
}

﻿
@Article{Bauer2017,
  author   = {Bauer, Daniel J.},
  journal  = {Psychological Methods},
  title    = {A more general model for testing measurement invariance and differential item functioning},
  year     = {2017},
  number   = {3},
  pages    = {507–526},
  volume   = {22},
  abstract = {The evaluation of measurement invariance is an important step in establishing the validity and comparability of measurements across individuals. Most commonly, measurement invariance has been examined using 1 of 2 primary latent variable modeling approaches: the multiple groups model or the multiple-indicator multiple-cause (MIMIC) model. Both approaches offer opportunities to detect differential item functioning within multi-item scales, and thereby to test measurement invariance, but both approaches also have significant limitations. The multiple groups model allows 1 to examine the invariance of all model parameters but only across levels of a single categorical individual difference variable (e.g., ethnicity). In contrast, the MIMIC model permits both categorical and continuous individual difference variables (e.g., sex and age) but permits only a subset of the model parameters to vary as a function of these characteristics. The current article argues that moderated nonlinear factor analysis (MNLFA) constitutes an alternative, more flexible model for evaluating measurement invariance and differential item functioning. We show that the MNLFA subsumes and combines the strengths of the multiple group and MIMIC models, allowing for a full and simultaneous assessment of measurement invariance and differential item functioning across multiple categorical and/or continuous individual difference variables. The relationships between the MNLFA model and the multiple groups and MIMIC models are shown mathematically and via an empirical demonstration. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2017 APA, all rights reserved)},
  doi      = {10.1037/met0000077},
  keywords = {*Factor Analysis *Item Analysis (Statistical) *Models Statistical Measurement},
}

﻿
@Article{Muthen2014,
  author   = {Muthén, Bengt O. and Asparouhov, Tihomir},
  journal  = {Frontiers in Psychology},
  title    = {{IRT} studies of many groups: the alignment method},
  year     = {2014},
  number   = {978},
  volume   = {5},
  abstract = {Asparouhov and Muthén (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">2014</xref>) presented a new method for multiple-group confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), referred to as the alignment method. The alignment method can be used to estimate group-specific factor means and variances without requiring exact measurement invariance. A strength of the method is the ability to conveniently estimate models for many groups, such as with comparisons of countries. This paper focuses on IRT applications of the alignment method. An empirical investigation is made of binary knowledge items administered in two separate surveys of a set of countries. A Monte Carlo study is presented that shows how the quality of the alignment can be assessed.},
  doi      = {10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00978},
  keywords = {Factor means Invariance testing Country cmparisons,Approximate invariance Maximum-likelihood,Bayesian inference,invariance testing,maximum likelihood estimation},
  url      = {https://www.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00978},
}

﻿
@Article{Tyrell2019,
  author   = {Tyrell, Fanita A. and Yates, Tuppett M. and Widaman, Keith F. and Reynolds, Chandra A. and Fabricius, William V.},
  journal  = {Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology},
  title    = {Data harmonization: {Establishing} measurement invariance across different assessments of the same construct across adolescence},
  year     = {2019},
  number   = {4},
  pages    = {555–567},
  volume   = {48},
  abstract = {Longitudinal measurement invariance is a major concern for developmental scholars who seek to evaluate the same underlying construct across time. Unfortunately, discontinuities in the expression of various psychological constructs, as well as essential changes in measurement that are necessitated by shifting developmental capacities and practice effects over time, make the task of establishing longitudinal invariance extremely difficult. Drawing on 5 waves of longitudinal data from 392 families (52% female; Mage_W1 = 12.89, SD = .48; Mage_W5 = 21.95, SD = .77; 199 European American and 193 Mexican American families), the current investigation sought to establish measurement invariance across developmentally appropriate changes in measures of depressive symptomatology from early adolescence through early adulthood. Using a combination of item parceling and the common and unique items from 2 assessment instruments for depressive symptoms, the data supported strong factorial invariance in youth?s depressive symptoms across 5 waves of measurement. Findings suggest that traditional invariance approaches can be adapted to determine whether the same construct underlies different measurement instruments across time. This analytic strategy can allow researchers and clinicians to use more sophisticated techniques to understand changes in symptomatology regardless of changes in measurement or developmental capacity. Applying this approach to model patterns of depressive symptomatology from early adolescence to early adulthood has important clinical implications for elucidating periods when youth experience elevations in depressive symptoms and heightened needs for intervention services.},
  doi      = {10.1080/15374416.2019.1622124},
  url      = {https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2019.1622124},
}

﻿
@Article{Hancock2008,
  author  = {Hancock, Gregory R. and Buehl, Michelle M.},
  journal = {Journal of Modern Applied Statistical Methods},
  title   = {Second-order latent growth models with shifting indicators},
  year    = {2008},
  number  = {1},
  pages   = {39–55},
  volume  = {7},
  doi     = {10.22237/jmasm/1209614640},
}

﻿
@Article{Lai2023,
  author   = {Lai, Mark H. C.},
  journal  = {Multivariate Behavioral Research},
  title    = {Adjusting for measurement noninvariance with alignment in growth modeling},
  year     = {2023},
  number   = {1},
  pages    = {30–47},
  volume   = {58},
  abstract = {AbstractLongitudinal measurement invariance?the consistency of measurement in data collected over time?is a prerequisite for any meaningful inferences of growth patterns. When one or more items measuring the construct of interest show noninvariant measurement properties over time, it leads to biased parameter estimates and inferences on the growth parameters. In this paper, I extend the recently developed alignment-within-confirmatory factor analysis (AwC) technique to adjust for measurement biases for growth models. The proposed AwC method does not require a priori knowledge of noninvariant items and the iterative searching of noninvariant items in typical longitudinal measurement invariance research. Results of a Monte Carlo simulation study comparing AwC with the partial invariance modeling method show that AwC largely reduces biases in growth parameter estimates and gives good control of Type I error rates, especially when the sample size is at least 1,000. It also outperforms the partial invariance method in conditions when all items are noninvariant. However, all methods give biased growth parameter estimates when the proportion of noninvariant parameters is over 25\%. Based on the simulation results, I conclude that AO is a viable alternative to the partial invariance method in growth modeling when it is not clear whether longitudinal measurement invariance holds. The current paper also demonstrates AwC in an example modeling neuroticism over three time points using a public data set, which shows how researchers can compute effect size indices for noninvariance in AwC to assess to what degree invariance holds and whether AwC results are trustworthy.},
  doi      = {10.1080/00273171.2021.1941730},
  url      = {https://doi.org/10.1080/00273171.2021.1941730},
}

﻿
@Article{SacuInPress,
  author   = {Sacu, Seda and Streit, Fabian and Witt, Stephanie H. and Banaschewski, Tobias and Holz, Nathalie E. and Schultebraucks, Katharina},
  journal  = {Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry},
  title    = {Predicting psychopathology symptom trajectories using machine learning: {A} 33-year prospective study},
  year     = {in press},
  abstract = {Background While previous literature has established a link between psychopathology symptom trajectories and psychosocial risk, most studies have not extended into adulthood or incorporated comprehensive risk measures. We aimed to identify symptom trajectories for externalizing and internalizing symptoms over a 25-year span and predict them using machine learning. Methods We used data from a longitudinal birth cohort study (N = 317, 171 females). Psychopathology symptoms were measured between age 8 and 33. Symptom trajectories were identified using growth mixture models. An extensive battery of risk and protective measures over the lifespan (e.g., polygenic scores, psychosocial risk factors, temperament) was used to train machine learning-based classification models. Results We identified three trajectories for both externalizing and internalizing symptoms (entropy > 0.8, likelihood ratio test p < .05): Low, increasing (late-adolescent emergence), and decreasing (childhood-limited) symptoms classes. Both genetic (e.g., polygenic scores for cognition and mental disorders) and environmental factors (e.g., adverse family characteristics, poor social functioning) predicted symptom trajectories. For externalizing symptoms trajectories, random forest achieved fair discriminatory power with a multiclass macro-average AUC of 0.77 and a multiclass micro-average of 0.88. For internalizing symptoms trajectories, logistic regression achieved modest discriminatory power with a multiclass macro-average AUC of 0.75 and a multiclass micro-average of 0.83. Conclusions Psychopathology risk trajectories vary across development and are influenced by diverse risk factors. Understanding these risk factors can support early identification of at-risk individuals and inform targeted prevention and intervention efforts.},
  doi      = {10.1111/jcpp.70180},
  url      = {https://acamh.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/jcpp.70180},
}

﻿
@Article{Owens2003,
  author   = {Owens, Elizabeth B. and Shaw, Daniel S.},
  journal  = {Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology},
  title    = {Predicting growth curves of externalizing behavior across the preschool years},
  year     = {2003},
  number   = {6},
  pages    = {575–590},
  volume   = {31},
  abstract = {Hierarchical linear modeling was used to examine 2 facets of externalizing behavior: its level at age 6 and its rate of change from age 2 to 6 among 299 boys from low-income families. As for age-6 level of externalizing behavior, maternal depressive symptoms, maternal acceptance of child behavior, parental conflict, and the interaction between maternal acceptance and maternal depressive symptoms were each uniquely associated with this outcome. Regarding the interaction, maternal acceptance was associated with externalizing behavior primarily when maternal depressive symptoms were low, and maternal depressive symptoms were related to externalizing behavior only when maternal acceptance was high. Externalizing behavior gradually decreased between ages 2 and 6; interactions between infant negative emotionality and maternal depressive symptoms and between parental conflict and maternal acceptance were associated with rate of change. Plots suggested a protective effect of low infant negative emotionality when maternal depressive symptoms were high and a larger effect of maternal acceptance when parental conflict was low compared to when it was high. Results add to a small but growing literature regarding predictors of continuity and change in early child externalizing behavior.},
  doi      = {10.1023/a:1026254005632},
  keywords = {Behavioral Science},
  url      = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1026254005632},
}

@Audio{QuantitudeS3E18,
  author         = {Hancock, Gregory R. and Curran, Patrick J. {(Hosts)}},
  author+an:role = {=hosts},
  date           = {2022-02-01},
  day            = {1},
  entrysubtype   = {podcastepisode},
  maintitle      = {Quantitude},
  month          = {2},
  note           = {Audio podcast episode},
  organization   = {In Quantitude},
  publisher      = {Quantitude},
  title          = {S3E18: {Aunt Roz's} Guide to Latent Means Models},
  url            = {https://quantitudepod.org/latent-means/ (archived at: https://perma.cc/5JL3-YUPA)},
  year           = {2022},
}

﻿
@Article{VanDeSchoot2013,
  author   = {Van De Schoot, Rens and Kluytmans, Anouck and Tummers, Lars and Lugtig, Peter and Hox, Joop and Muthen, Bengt},
  journal  = {Frontiers in Psychology},
  title    = {Facing off with {Scylla} and {Charybdis}: {A} comparison of scalar, partial, and the novel possibility of approximate measurement invariance},
  year     = {2013},
  number   = {770},
  volume   = {4},
  abstract = {Measurement invariance (MI) is a pre-requisite for comparing latent variable scores across groups. The current paper introduces the concept of approximate MI building on the work of Muthén and Asparouhov and their application of Bayesian Structural Equation Modeling (BSEM) in the software Mplus. They showed that with BSEM exact zeros constraints can be replaced with approximate zeros to allow for minimal steps away from strict MI, still yielding a well-fitting model. This new opportunity enables researchers to make explicit trade-offs between the degree of MI on the one hand, and the degree of model fit on the other. Throughout the paper we discuss the topic of approximate MI, followed by an empirical illustration where the test for MI fails, but where allowing for approximate MI results in a well-fitting model. Using simulated data, we investigate in which situations approximate MI can be applied and when it leads to unbiased results. Both our empirical illustration and the simulation study show approximate MI outperforms full or partial MI In detecting/recovering the true latent mean difference when there are (many) small differences in the intercepts and factor loadings across groups. In the discussion we provide a step-by-step guide in which situation what type of MI is preferred. Our paper provides a first step in the new research area of (partial) approximate MI and shows that it can be a good alternative when strict MI leads to a badly fitting model and when partial MI cannot be applied.},
  doi      = {10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00770},
  keywords = {Measurement invariance,Bayesian structural equation modelling,Mplus,informative/subjective prior,prior variance},
  url      = {https://www.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00770},
}

﻿
@Article{Cieciuch2014,
  author   = {Cieciuch, Jan and Davidov, Eldad and Schmidt, Peter and Algesheimer, René and Schwartz, Shalom H.},
  journal  = {Frontiers in Psychology},
  title    = {Comparing results of an exact vs. {an} approximate ({Bayesian}) measurement invariance test: {A} cross-country illustration with a scale to measure 19 human values},
  year     = {2014},
  number   = {982},
  volume   = {5},
  abstract = {One of the most frequently used procedures for measurement invariance testing is the multigroup confirmatory factor analysis (MGCFA). Muthén and Asparouhov recently proposed a new approach to test for approximate rather than exact measurement invariance using Bayesian MGCFA. Approximate measurement invariance permits small differences between parameters otherwise constrained to be equal in the classical exact approach. However, extant knowledge about how results of approximate measurement invariance tests compare to the results of the exact measurement invariance test is missing. We address this gap by comparing the results of exact and approximate cross-country measurement invariance tests of a revised scale to measure human values. Several studies that measured basic human values with the Portrait Values Questionnaire (PVQ) reported problems of measurement noninvariance (especially scalar noninvariance) across countries. Recently Schwartz et al. proposed a refined value theory and an instrument (PVQ-5X) to measure 19 more narrowly defined values. Cieciuch et al. tested its measurement invariance properties across eight countries and established exact scalar measurement invariance for 10 of the 19 values. The current study applied the approximate measurement invariance procedure on the same data and established approximate scalar measurement invariance even for all 19 values. Thus, the first conclusion is that the approximate approach provides more encouraging results for the usefulness of the scale for cross-cultural research, although this finding needs to be generalized and validated in future research using population data. The second conclusion is that the approximate measurement invariance is more likely than the exact approach to establish measurement invariance, although further simulation studies are needed to determine more precise recommendations about how large the permissible variance of the priors may be.},
  doi      = {10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00982},
  keywords = {multigroup confirmatory factor analysis,exact measurement invariance,approximate measurement invariance,configural metric scalar measurement invariance,Revised Portrait Values Questionnaire,Bayesian Analysis},
  url      = {https://www.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00982},
}

﻿
@Article{Seddig2018,
  author   = {Seddig, Daniel and Leitgöb, Heinz},
  journal  = {Survey Research Methods},
  title    = {Approximate measurement invariance and longitudinal confirmatory factor analysis: {Concept} and application with panel data},
  year     = {2018},
  number   = {1},
  volume   = {12},
  abstract = {This article addresses the approximate approach to assess measurement invariance with(longitudinal) confirmatory factor analysis. Approximate measurement invariance useszero-mean, small-variance Bayesian priors to allow minor differences in estimatedparameters across time, while still maintaining comparability of the underlying constructs.The procedure is illustrated for the first time with panel data on young peoples’ preferencesto maximize pleasure and enjoy life. Results indicate whereas the traditional approach ofexact measurement invariance failed to establish scalar invariance across time and precludedcomparisons of latent means, it was possible to establish approximate scalar invariance.Based on a monitoring procedure for model fit and convergence, a rather small prior variancewas deemed sufficient to account for minor deviations of cross-time intercept differencesfrom zero.},
  doi      = {10.18148/srm/2018.v12i1.7210},
  url      = {https://ojs.ub.uni-konstanz.de/srm/article/view/7210},
}

@Article{Winter2020,
  author   = {Winter, Sonja D. and Depaoli, Sarah},
  journal  = {International Journal of Behavioral Development},
  title    = {An illustration of {Bayesian} approximate measurement invariance with longitudinal data and a small sample size},
  year     = {2020},
  number   = {4},
  pages    = {371–382},
  volume   = {44},
  abstract = {This article illustrates the Bayesian approximate measurement invariance (MI) approach in Mplus with longitudinal data and small sample size. Approximate MI incorporates zero-mean small variance prior distributions on the differences between parameter estimates over time. Contrary to traditional invariance testing methods, where exact invariance is tested, this method allows for some “wiggle room” in the parameter estimates over time. The procedure is illustrated using longitudinal data on college students’ academic stress as it changes in the period leading up to and right after an important midterm. Results show that traditional invariance testing methods come to a standstill due to the small sample size. Bayesian approximate MI testing was able to identify non-invariant parameters, after which a partially invariant model could be estimated.},
  doi      = {10.1177/0165025419880610},
  keywords = {Bayesian statistics,approximate measurement invariance,longitudinal data,small sample size},
  url      = {https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0165025419880610},
}

﻿
@Article{Widaman2010,
  author   = {Widaman, Keith F. and Ferrer, Emilio and Conger, Rand D.},
  journal  = {Child Development Perspectives},
  title    = {Factorial invariance within longitudinal structural equation models: {Measuring} the same construct across time},
  year     = {2010},
  number   = {1},
  pages    = {10–18},
  volume   = {4},
  abstract = {Abstract— Charting change in behavior as a function of age and investigating longitudinal relations among constructs are primary goals of developmental research. Traditionally, researchers rely on a single measure (e.g., scale score) for a given construct for each person at each occasion of measurement, assuming that measure reflects the same construct at each occasion. With multiple indicators of a latent construct at each time of measurement, the researcher can evaluate whether factorial invariance holds. If factorial invariance constraints are satisfied, latent variable scores at each time of measurement are on the same metric and stronger conclusions are warranted. This article discusses factorial invariance in longitudinal studies, contrasting analytic approaches and highlighting strengths of the multiple-indicator approach to modeling developmental processes.},
  doi      = {10.1111/j.1750-8606.2009.00110.x},
  keywords = {longitudinal designs longitudinal models growth curve models factorial invariance},
  url      = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1750-8606.2009.00110.x},
}

﻿
@Article{Knight2010,
  author   = {Knight, George P. and Zerr, Argero A.},
  journal  = {Child Development Perspectives},
  title    = {Informed theory and measurement equivalence in child development research},
  year     = {2010},
  number   = {1},
  pages    = {25–30},
  volume   = {4},
  abstract = {Abstract— The role of theory informed by the nature of the population being studied is often overlooked in considering the equivalence of measures across developmental changes, across groups that differ in developmental status, or across groups that differ in participant characteristics. The purpose of this article is to discuss the “best practice” approaches for evaluating measurement equivalence based on such informed theory. This article discusses the role of informed theory in the consideration of various types of measurement equivalence in developmental research, as well as equivalence of translated items and measures.},
  doi      = {10.1111/j.1750-8606.2009.00112.x},
  keywords = {measurement equivalence measurement invariance factorial invariance},
  url      = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1750-8606.2009.00112.x},
}

﻿
@InBook{Edwards2012,
  author    = {Edwards, Michael C. and Wirth, Robert J.},
  chapter   = {11},
  editor    = {Hancock, G. R. and Harring, J. R.},
  pages     = {289–311},
  publisher = {Information Age Publishing},
  title     = {Valid measurement without factorial invariance: {A} longitudinal example},
  year      = {2012},
  address   = {Charlotte, NC, US},
  booktitle = {Advances in longitudinal methods in the social and behavioral sciences},
  doi       = {10.1108/978-1-61735-891-320251015},
}

﻿
@Book{Kolen2014,
  author    = {Kolen, Michael J. and Brennan, Robert L.},
  publisher = {Springer},
  title     = {Test equating, scaling, and linking: {Methods} and practices},
  year      = {2014},
  address   = {New York, NY, US},
  edition   = {3rd},
  series    = {Statistics for Social and Behavioral Sciences},
  doi       = {10.1007/978-1-4939-0317-7},
  pages     = {566},
}

﻿
@Article{Robitzsch2023,
  author   = {Robitzsch, Alexander and Lüdtke, Oliver},
  journal  = {Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal},
  title    = {Why full, partial, or approximate measurement invariance are not a prerequisite for meaningful and valid group comparisons},
  year     = {2023},
  note     = {doi: 10.1080/10705511.2023.2191292},
  number   = {6},
  pages    = {859–870},
  volume   = {30},
  abstract = {AbstractIt is frequently stated in the literature that measurement invariance is a prerequisite for the comparison of group means or standard deviations of the latent variable in factor models. This article argues that measurement invariance is not necessary for meaningful and valid comparisons across groups. There is unavoidable ambiguity in how researchers can define comparisons if measurement invariance is violated. Moreover, there is no support for preferring the partial invariance approach over competing approaches, such as invariance alignment, robust linking, or Bayesian approximate invariance. Furthermore, we also argue why an intentionally misspecified multiple-group factor model with invariant item parameters can be justified if measurement invariance is violated.},
  doi      = {10.1080/10705511.2023.2191292},
  url      = {https://doi.org/10.1080/10705511.2023.2191292},
}

﻿
@Article{Welzel2023a,
  author   = {Welzel, Christian and Brunkert, Lennart and Kruse, Stefan and Inglehart, Ronald F.},
  journal  = {Sociological Methods & Research},
  title    = {Non-invariance? {An} overstated problem with misconceived causes},
  year     = {2023},
  number   = {3},
  pages    = {1368–1400},
  volume   = {52},
  abstract = {Scholars study representative international surveys to understand cross-cultural differences in mentality patterns, which are measured via complex multi-item constructs. Methodologists in this field insist with increasing vigor that detecting “non-invariance” in how a construct’s items associate with each other in different national samples is an infallible sign of encultured in-equivalences in how respondents understand the items. Questioning this claim, we demonstrate that a main source of non-invariance is the arithmetic of closed-ended scales in the presence of sample mean disparity. Since arithmetic principles are culture-unspecific, the non-invariance that these principles enforce in statistical terms is inconclusive of encultured in-equivalences in semantic terms. Because of this inconclusiveness, our evidence reveals furthermore that non-invariance is inconsequential for the cross-cultural functioning of multi-item constructs as concerns their nomological linkages to other variables of interest. We discuss the implications of these insights for measurement validation in cross-cultural settings with large sample mean disparity.},
  doi      = {10.1177/0049124121995521},
  keywords = {measurement equivalence,item response,multigroup confirmatory factor analysis,compositional substitutability,emancipative values},
  url      = {https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0049124121995521},
}

@Article{Welzel2023b,
  author   = {Welzel, Christian and Kruse, Stefan and Brunkert, Lennart},
  journal  = {Sociological Methods & Research},
  title    = {Against the mainstream: {On} the limitations of non-invariance diagnostics: {Response} to {Fischer} et al. and {Meuleman} et al},
  year     = {2023},
  number   = {3},
  pages    = {1438–1455},
  volume   = {52},
  abstract = {Our original 2021 SMR article “Non-Invariance? An Overstated Problem with Misconceived Causes” disputes the conclusiveness of non-invariance diagnostics in diverse cross-cultural settings. Our critique targets the increasingly fashionable use of Multi-Group Confirmatory Factor Analysis (MGCFA), especially in its mainstream version. We document—both by mathematical proof and an empirical illustration—that non-invariance is an arithmetic artifact of group mean disparity on closed-ended scales. Precisely this arti-factualness renders standard non-invariance markers inconclusive of measurement inequivalence under group-mean diversity. Using the Emancipative Values Index (EVI), OA-Section 3 of our original article demonstrates that such artifactual non-invariance is inconsequential for multi-item constructs’ cross-cultural performance in nomological terms, that is, explanatory power and predictive quality. Given these limitations of standard non-invariance diagnostics, we challenge the unquestioned authority of invariance tests as a tool of measurement validation. Our critique provoked two teams of authors to launch counter-critiques. We are grateful to the two comments because they give us a welcome opportunity to restate our position in greater clarity. Before addressing the comments one by one, we reformulate our key propositions more succinctly.},
  doi      = {10.1177/00491241221091754},
  keywords = {Non-Invariance,measurement Equivalence,compositional Substitutability,nomological Performance,emancipative Values},
  url      = {https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/00491241221091754},
}

﻿
@Article{Funder2024,
  author   = {Funder, David C and Gardiner, Gwendolyn},
  journal  = {European Journal of Personality},
  title    = {{MIsgivings} about measurement invariance},
  year     = {2024},
  number   = {6},
  pages    = {889–895},
  volume   = {38},
  abstract = {This paper critically evaluates the conventional insistence on establishing measurement invariance (MI) in cross-cultural psychology. We argue that complex and seemingly arbitrary benchmarks for assessing MI can be unrealistic and effectively prohibit meaningful research. The widespread use of various MI criteria creates unnecessary and often unattainable hurdles for cross-cultural researchers who have made the effort to collect data in multiple cultural contexts. Additionally, the prohibitionist tone of discussions surrounding MI is unhelpful, unscientific, and discouraging. We argue that emerging findings that cultural differences might not be as widespread or profound as once assumed imply that significant cross-cultural differences in measurement should not be the default assumption. Additionally, we advocate a shift towards external validity as a more useful metric of measurement quality. Our overall message is that researchers who go to the considerable trouble of gathering data in more than one country should not be disadvantaged compared to researchers who avoid cross-cultural complications by gathering data only at their home campus.},
  doi      = {10.1177/08902070241228338},
  keywords = {cross-cultural research,statistical methods,tests},
  url      = {https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/08902070241228338},
}

﻿
@Article{Sterner2026,
  author   = {Sterner, Philipp and Pargent, Florian and Goretzko, David},
  journal  = {Current Research in Ecological and Social Psychology},
  title    = {Don’t let {MI} be misunderstood: {A} causal view on measurement invariance},
  year     = {2026},
  pages    = {100261},
  volume   = {10},
  abstract = {Measurement invariance (MI) is often treated as a statistical prerequisite for meaningful comparisons of constructs across groups or time points. However, this perspective overlooks the substantive implications (a lack of) MI can have for psychological theories of constructs. In this paper, we frame MI as a causal concept with theoretical significance. We present a causal framework based on directed acyclic graphs (DAGs) that allows researchers to reason about potential causes of non-invariance and include them in their modeling strategy. We argue that non-invariance should not be seen as prohibitive for further exploration and analyses but as an opportunity to generate new insights about constructs and their measurement. That is, under non-invariance, data need a different treatment than simply comparing means between groups and causal reasoning can guide researchers in this regard. We demonstrate the opportunities of the causal framework through an application to the cross-sectional study of acquiescent response style. We further discuss an extension of the causal framework to longitudinal designs. When investigating the invariance of measurements over time, the framework can help to take into account expected or desired non-invariance; for example, when constructs evolve over time or when interventions change measurement models. By showing that MI has substantive theoretical implications, we bridge the gap between methodological rigor and applied research reality.},
  doi      = {10.1016/j.cresp.2025.100261},
  keywords = {Measurement invariance Causal inference Directed acyclic graphs Acquiescence Longitudinal designs},
  url      = {https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666622725000486},
}

﻿
@Article{DeLosReyes2025,
  author  = {De Los Reyes, Andres and L., Oswald Frederick and J., Racz Sarah and Armando, Pina and D., McLeod Bryce and Mo, Wang and and Charamut, Natalie R.},
  journal = {Journal of Clinical Child \& Adolescent Psychology},
  title   = {Editorial: {Fairness}, validity, and transparency in what researchers assume when testing for measurement invariance},
  year    = {2025},
  note    = {doi: 10.1080/15374416.2025.2484813},
  number  = {3},
  pages   = {299–317},
  volume  = {54},
  doi     = {10.1080/15374416.2025.2484813},
  url     = {https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2025.2484813},
}

﻿
@Book{Millsap2011,
  author    = {Millsap, Roger E.},
  publisher = {Taylor & Francis},
  title     = {Statistical approaches to measurement invariance},
  year      = {2011},
  address   = {New York, NY, US},
}

﻿
@Article{Averdijk2014,
  author   = {Averdijk, Margit},
  journal  = {International Review of Victimology},
  title    = {Methodological challenges in the study of age−victimization patterns. {Can} we use the accelerated design of the {NCVS} to reconstruct victim careers?},
  year     = {2014},
  number   = {3},
  pages    = {265–288},
  volume   = {20},
  abstract = {While the life-course perspective dominates the study of offending, its adoption in the study of victimization has barely begun, leading to calls in the literature for the development of a life-course victimology. However, longitudinal self-report data present methodological challenges. This article investigates these methodological challenges with the ‘accelerated longitudinal design’ of the US National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS). It tests whether multiple age cohorts in the NCVS show one overall underlying age−victimization curve, or whether (and why) they show systematically different age−victimization curves. The analyses show that, for every age cohort studied, self-reported victimization decreases over consecutive measurements. Explanations offered for this decrease include selective panel attrition, the American crime drop, and panel-respondent fatigue. The separate age cohorts do not share the same underlying age−victimization curve. Implications for research are discussed.},
  doi      = {10.1177/0269758014537147},
  keywords = {accelerated longitudinal design,panel data,victimization},
  url      = {https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0269758014537147},
}

﻿
@Article{Hertzog2003,
  author   = {Hertzog, Christopher and Nesselroade, John R.},
  journal  = {Psychology and Aging},
  title    = {Assessing psychological change in adulthood: {An} overview of methodological issues},
  year     = {2003},
  note     = {Georgia Inst of Technology, School of Psychology, Atlanta, GA, US. Release Date: 20060710. Publication Type: Journal, Peer Reviewed Journal. Media Covered: Print. Media Available: Electronic; Print. Document Type: Journal Article. Language: English. Major Descriptor: Aging; Experimental Methods; Human Development; Psychological Assessment; Statistical Analysis. Minor Descriptor: Mathematical Modeling. Classification: Gerontology (2860); Psychometrics & Statistics & Methodology (2200); Population: Human (10); . Age Group: Adulthood (18 yrs & older) (300); Aged (65 yrs & older) (380); . Methodology: Literature Review. Supplemental Data: Web Sites [Internet]; . References Available: Y.. Issue Publication Date: Dec, 2003. Copyright: American Psychological Association. 2003.;},
  number   = {4},
  pages    = {639–657},
  volume   = {18},
  abstract = {This article reviews the current status of methods available for the analysis of psychological change in adulthood and aging. Enormous progress has been made in designing statistical models that can capture key aspects of intraindividual change, as reflected in techniques such as latent growth curve models and multilevel (random-effects) models. However, the rapid evolution of statistical innovations may have obscured the critical importance of addressing rival explanations for statistical outcomes, such as cohort differences or practice effects that could influence estimates of age-related change. Choice of modeling technique and implementation of a specific modeling approach should be grounded in and reflect both the theoretical nature of the developmental phenomenon and the features of the sampling design that selected persons, variables, and contexts for empirical observation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved). (from the journal abstract)},
  doi      = {10.1037/0882-7974.18.4.639},
  keywords = {psychological change assessment adulthood aging statistical models intraindividual change experimental methods Human Development Psychological Assessment Statistical Analysis Mathematical Modeling},
  url      = {http://ezproxy.lib.indiana.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=pdh&AN=pag-18-4-639&site=ehost-live
christopher.hertzog@psych.gatech.edu},
}

﻿
@Article{Ferrer2004,
  author   = {Ferrer, Emilio and Salthouse, Timothy A. and Stewart, Walter F. and Schwartz, Brian S.},
  journal  = {Psychology and Aging},
  title    = {Modeling age and retest processes in longitudinal studies of cognitive abilities},
  year     = {2004},
  number   = {2},
  pages    = {243–259},
  volume   = {19},
  abstract = {Mixed effects models were used to examine the separate effects associated with age and retest on changes in various cognitive abilities. Individuals (N > 800) ranging in age from 40 to 70 years at the 1st measurement occasion were assessed with measures of memory, spatial abilities, and speed on 4 occasions. All cognitive abilities showed decline associated with increased age and improvement across the 4 measurement occasions. The age-related effects were similar across variables, but the practice effects were largest for memory and smallest for speed. When retest effects were not included in the models, the age-related effects were underestimated, with the magnitude of bias depending on the size of the ignored retest effects. It is suggested that both age and retest should be modeled simultaneously when analyzing longitudinal data because part of the change across occasions may be attributable to practice or reactive effects. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2016 APA, all rights reserved)},
  doi      = {10.1037/0882-7974.19.2.243},
  keywords = {*Age Differences *Cognitive Ability *Cognitive Processing Speed *Memory *Spatial Ability Models},
}

﻿
@Book{Schaie2005,
  author    = {Schaie, K. Warner},
  publisher = {Oxford University Press},
  title     = {Developmental influences on adult intelligence: {The} {Seattle Longitudinal Study}},
  year      = {2005},
}

﻿
@Article{Masche2004,
  author   = {Masche, J. Gowert and van Dulmen, Manfred H. M.},
  journal  = {Developmental Review},
  title    = {Advances in disentangling age, cohort, and time effects: {No} quadrature of the circle, but a help},
  year     = {2004},
  number   = {3},
  pages    = {322–342},
  volume   = {24},
  abstract = {Based on Schaie's (1965) general developmental model, various data-driven and theory-based approaches to the exploration and disentangling of age, cohort, and time effects on human behavior have emerged. This paper presents and discusses an advancement of data-driven interpretations that stresses parsimony when interpreting the results of sequential models. Second, a synthesis of data-driven and theory-based approaches examines the specific predictors of patterns of cross-sectional, longitudinal, and time-lag differences. This approach is exemplified with data from two cross-sectional samples. In 1991 and 1996, representative samples of 13- to 29-year-old Germans were interviewed orally. Parts of these samples were analyzed employing a time-sequential and a cross-sequential strategy (analyzed N=6105). While the data-driven approach allowed for two alternative interpretations, the second approach revealed that parental emotional help for their children declined with age, partly due to the children leaving home. Help provided for parents generally increased with age, however, leaving home had the opposite effect so that overall, only small and inconsistent age increases in help for parents were found.},
  doi      = {10.1016/j.dr.2004.04.002},
  keywords = {Sequential strategies General developmental model Age differences Cohort differences Time differences Individuation theory Parent–adolescent relations},
  url      = {https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273229704000206},
}

﻿
@Misc{Whitbourne2019,
  author    = {Whitbourne, Susan Krauss},
  month     = {2019–01–25},
  title     = {Longitudinal, cross-sectional, and sequential designs in lifespan developmental psychology},
  year      = {2019},
  publisher = {Oxford University Press},
}

﻿
@Book{Little2024,
  author    = {Little, Todd D.},
  publisher = {Guilford Publications},
  title     = {Longitudinal structural equation modeling},
  year      = {2024},
  edition   = {2nd},
}

﻿
@Book{Yang2013,
  author    = {Yang, Yang and Land, Kenneth C.},
  publisher = {Taylor & Francis},
  title     = {Age-period-cohort analysis: {New} models, methods, and empirical applications},
  year      = {2013},
  abstract  = {Age-Period-Cohort Analysis: New Models, Methods, and Empirical Applications is based on a decade of the authors’ collaborative work in age-period-cohort (APC) analysis. Within a single, consistent HAPC-GLMM statistical modeling framework, the authors synthesize APC models and methods for three research designs: age-by-time period tables of population rates or proportions, repeated cross-section sample surveys, and accelerated longitudinal panel studies. The authors show how the empirical application of the models to various problems leads to many fascinating findings on how outcome variables develop along the age, period, and cohort dimensions. The book makes two essential contributions to quantitative studies of time-related change. Through the introduction of the GLMM framework, it shows how innovative estimation methods and new model specifications can be used to tackle the "model identification problem" that has hampered the development and empirical application of APC analysis. The book also addresses the major criticism against APC analysis by explaining the use of new models within the GLMM framework to uncover mechanisms underlying age patterns and temporal trends. Encompassing both methodological expositions and empirical studies, this book explores the ways in which statistical models, methods, and research designs can be used to open new possibilities for APC analysis. It compares new and existing models and methods and provides useful guidelines on how to conduct APC analysis. For empirical illustrations, the text incorporates examples from a variety of disciplines, such as sociology, demography, and epidemiology. Along with details on empirical analyses, software and programs to estimate the models are available on the book’s web page.},
  keywords  = {Probability & statistics},
}

﻿
@Article{Rohrer2025,
  author   = {Rohrer, Julia M.},
  journal  = {Advances in Methods and Practices in Psychological Science},
  title    = {Thinking clearly about age, period, and cohort effects},
  year     = {2025},
  number   = {2},
  pages    = {25152459251342750},
  volume   = {8},
  abstract = {Psychological researchers are interested in how things change over time and routinely make claims about age effects (e.g., personality maturation), cohort effects (e.g., generational differences in narcissism), and sometimes, period effects (e.g., secular trends in mental health). The age-period-cohort identification problem means that these claims are not possible based on the data alone: Any possible temporal pattern can be explained by an infinite number of combinations of age, period, and cohort effects. This concern holds regardless of the study design (it also applies to longitudinal designs covering multiple cohorts) and the number of observations available (it also applies if researchers observe the whole population). Researchers usually rely on statistical models that impose constraints to pick one specific decomposition of effects. Unfortunately, these constraints often remain opaque, resulting in a lack of scrutiny of the underlying assumptions. How can researchers reason more transparently and systematically about age, period, and cohort? Here, I summarize advances in the understanding of the precise nature of the identification problem, provide an overview of ways to move forward, and highlight one approach that is particularly transparent about assumptions: bounding analysis, a framework developed by sociologists Ethan Fosse and Christopher Winship. To illustrate this approach, I analyze how age, period, and cohort affect attitudes toward working mothers in the German General Social Survey.},
  doi      = {10.1177/25152459251342750},
  keywords = {age-period-cohort problem, age effects, cohort differences, longitudinal modeling, open materials},
  url      = {https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/25152459251342750},
}

@Article{Revelle2019,
  author   = {Revelle, William and Condon, David M.},
  journal  = {Psychological Assessment},
  title    = {Reliability from $\alpha$ to $\omega$: {A} tutorial},
  year     = {2019},
  number   = {12},
  pages    = {1395--1411},
  volume   = {31},
  abstract = {Reliability is a fundamental problem for measurement in all of science. Although defined in multiple ways, and estimated in even more ways, the basic concepts seem straightforward and need to be understood by practitioners as well as methodologists. Reliability theory is not just for the psychometrician estimating latent variables, it is for everyone who wants to make inferences from measures of individuals or of groups. For the case of a single test administration, we consider multiple measures of reliability, ranging from the worst (β) to average (α, λ3) to best (λ4) split half reliabilities, and consider why model-based estimates (ωh, ωt) should be reported. We also address the utility of test–retest and alternate form reliabilities. The advantages of immediate versus delayed retests to decompose observed score variance into specific, state, and trait scores are discussed. But reliability is not just for test scores, it is also important when evaluating the use of ratings. Estimates that may be applied to continuous data include a set of intraclass correlations while discrete categorical data needs to take advantage of the family of κ statistics. Examples of these various reliability estimates are given using state and trait measures of anxiety given with different delays and under different conditions. An online supplemental materials is provided with more detail and elaboration. The online supplemental materials is also used to demonstrate applications of open source software to examples of real data, and comparisons are made between the many types of reliability. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved)},
  doi      = {10.1037/pas0000754},
  keywords = {*Classical Test Theory *Measurement *Psychometrics *Test Reliability *Latent Variables Concepts Statistical Variables Test Scores},
}

﻿
@Article{Nicholson2017,
  author   = {Nicholson, Jody S. and Deboeck, Pascal R. and Howard, Waylon},
  journal  = {International Journal of Behavioral Development},
  title    = {Attrition in developmental psychology: {A} review of modern missing data reporting and practices},
  year     = {2017},
  number   = {1},
  pages    = {143–153},
  volume   = {41},
  abstract = {Inherent in applied developmental sciences is the threat to validity and generalizability due to missing data as a result of participant drop-out. The current paper provides an overview of how attrition should be reported, which tests can examine the potential of bias due to attrition (e.g., t-tests, logistic regression, Little's MCAR test, sensitivity analysis), and how it is best corrected through modern missing data analyses. To amend this discussion of best practices in managing and reporting attrition, an assessment of how developmental sciences currently handle attrition was conducted. Longitudinal studies (n = 541) published from 2009–2012 in major developmental journals were reviewed for attrition reporting practices and how authors handled missing data based on recommendations in the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (APA, 2010). Results suggest attrition reporting is not following APA recommendations, quality of reporting did not improve since the APA publication, and a low proportion of authors provided sufficient information to convey that data properly met the MAR assumption. An example based on simulated data demonstrates bias that may result from various missing data mechanisms in longitudinal data, the utility of auxiliary variables for the MAR assumption, and the need for viewing missingness along a continuum from MAR to MNAR.},
  doi      = {10.1177/0165025415618275},
  keywords = {Longitudinal data,attrition,journal article reporting standards,missing data},
  url      = {https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0165025415618275},
}

﻿
@Book{Enders2022,
  author    = {Enders, Craig K.},
  publisher = {Guilford Publications},
  title     = {Applied missing data analysis},
  year      = {2022},
}

@Article{Enders2025,
  author   = {Enders, Craig K.},
  journal  = {Psychological Methods},
  title    = {Missing data: {An} update on the state of the art},
  year     = {2025},
  number   = {2},
  pages    = {322–339},
  volume   = {30},
  abstract = {The year 2022 is the 20th anniversary of Joseph Schafer and John Graham's paper titled “Missing data: Our view of the state of the art,” currently the most highly cited paper in the history of Psychological Methods. Much has changed since 2002, as missing data methodologies have continually evolved and improved; the range of applications that are possible with modern missing data techniques has increased dramatically, and software options are light years ahead of where they were. This article provides an update on the state of the art that catalogs important innovations from the past two decades of missing data research. The paper addresses topics described in the original paper, including developments related to missing data theory, full information maximum likelihood, Bayesian estimation, multiple imputation, and models for missing not at random processes. The paper also describes newer factored regression specifications and missing data handling for multilevel models, both of which have been a focus of recent research. The paper concludes with a summary of the current software landscape and a discussion of several practical issues. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2025 APA, all rights reserved)},
  doi      = {10.1037/met0000563},
  keywords = {*Maximum Likelihood *Models *Statistical Data *Statistical Estimation Statistical Probability},
}

﻿
@Article{Bauer2013,
  author   = {Bauer, Daniel J. and Howard, Andrea L. and Baldasaro, Ruth E. and Curran, Patrick J. and Hussong, Andrea M. and Chassin, Laurie and Zucker, Robert A.},
  journal  = {Psychological Methods},
  title    = {A trifactor model for integrating ratings across multiple informants},
  year     = {2013},
  number   = {4},
  pages    = {475–493},
  volume   = {18},
  abstract = {Psychologists often obtain ratings for target individuals from multiple informants such as parents or peers. In this article we propose a trifactor model for multiple informant data that separates target-level variability from informant-level variability and item-level variability. By leveraging item-level data, the trifactor model allows for examination of a single trait rated on a single target. In contrast to many psychometric models developed for multitrait–multimethod data, the trifactor model is predominantly a measurement model. It is used to evaluate item quality in scale development, test hypotheses about sources of target variability (e.g., sources of trait differences) versus informant variability (e.g., sources of rater bias), and generate integrative scores that are purged of the subjective biases of single informants. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2016 APA, all rights reserved)},
  doi      = {10.1037/a0032475},
  keywords = {*Factor Analysis *Informants *Observers *Rating *Statistical Data Models},
}

﻿
@Article{Aitken2023,
  author   = {Aitken, Madison and Plamondon, André and Krzeczkowski, John and Kil, Hali and Andrade, Brendan F.},
  journal  = {Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology},
  title    = {Systematic integration of multi-informant externalizing ratings in clinical settings},
  year     = {2023},
  abstract = {Best practice clinical assessment of externalizing problems often necessitates collection of information from parents, youth themselves, and teachers. The present study tested the predictive validity of a psychometrically-driven scoring procedure to integrate multi-informant, dimensional ratings of externalizing problems. Participants were 2264 clinic-referred youth ages 6–18. Parents, teachers, and youth completed questionnaire ratings of externalizing problems (hyperactivity-inattention, conduct problems, and oppositionality-defiance) prior to an initial clinical appointment. The predictive validity of simple (highest informant rating; and all informant ratings separately) and more complex (latent S-1 bifactor model with specific informant factors; and moderated nonlinear factor analysis accounting for child age and sex) methods of informant integration was tested in predicting impairment, comorbidity, and number of clinical encounters. A simple model, in which all informant ratings were included, showed the best predictive validity across outcomes, performing as well or better than the use of the highest informant ratings or more complex latent variable models. The addition of child age and sex as moderators in the factor model did not improve predictive validity. Each informant (parent, teacher, and youth) contributes important information to the prediction of clinically-relevant outcomes. There is insufficient evidence at present to suggest that complex latent variable models should be favored over simpler models that preserve each informant’s ratings.},
  doi      = {10.1007/s10802-023-01119-z},
  url      = {https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-023-01119-z},
}

﻿
@Article{Kraemer2003,
  author   = {Kraemer, Helena C. and Measelle, Jeffrey R. and Ablow, Jennifer C. and Essex, Marilyn J. and Boyce, W. Thomas and Kupfer, David J.},
  journal  = {American Journal of Psychiatry},
  title    = {A new approach to integrating data from multiple informants in psychiatric assessment and research: {Mixing} and matching contexts and perspectives},
  year     = {2003},
  number   = {9},
  pages    = {1566–1577},
  volume   = {160},
  abstract = {OBJECTIVE: When there exists no single source of information (informant) to validly measure a characteristic, it is typically recommended that data from multiple informants be used. In psychiatric assessment and research, however, multiple informants often provide discordant data, which further confuse the measurement. Strategies such as arbitrarily choosing one informant or using the data from all informants separately generate further problems. This report proposes a theory to explain observed patterns of interinformant discordance and suggests a new approach to using data from multiple informants to measure characteristics of interest. METHOD: Using the example of assessment of developmental psychopathology in children, the authors propose a model in which the choice of informants is based on conceptualizing the contexts and perspectives that influence expression of the characteristic of interest and then identifying informants who represent those contexts and perspectives in such a way as to have the weaknesses of one informant canceled by the strengths of another. RESULTS: Applications of this approach to several datasets indicate that when these principles are followed, a more reliable and valid consensus measure is obtained, and failure to obtain a reliable, valid measure is indicative of some deviation from the principles. CONCLUSIONS: In obtaining a consensus measure, the issue is not determining how many informants are needed but choosing the right set of informants.},
  doi      = {10.1176/appi.ajp.160.9.1566},
  url      = {https://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/doi/abs/10.1176/appi.ajp.160.9.1566},
}

﻿
@Article{Podsakoff2012,
  author   = {Podsakoff, Philip M. and MacKenzie, Scott B. and Podsakoff, Nathan P.},
  journal  = {Annual Review of Psychology},
  title    = {Sources of method bias in social science research and recommendations on how to control it},
  year     = {2012},
  number   = {1},
  pages    = {539–569},
  volume   = {63},
  abstract = {Despite the concern that has been expressed about potential method biases, and the pervasiveness of research settings with the potential to produce them, there is disagreement about whether they really are a problem for researchers in the behavioral sciences. Therefore, the purpose of this review is to explore the current state of knowledge about method biases. First, we explore the meaning of the terms “method” and “method bias” and then we examine whether method biases influence all measures equally. Next, we review the evidence of the effects that method biases have on individual measures and on the covariation between different constructs. Following this, we evaluate the procedural and statistical remedies that have been used to control method biases and provide recommendations for minimizing method bias.},
  doi      = {10.1146/annurev-psych-120710-100452},
  keywords = {common method variance,response style biases,marker variable technique,instrumental variable technique,unmeasured latent variable technique},
  url      = {https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev-psych-120710-100452},
}

﻿
@Article{DeLosReyes2013,
  author   = {De Los Reyes, Andres and Thomas, Sarah A. and Goodman, Kimberly L. and Kundey, Shannon M.A.},
  journal  = {Annual Review of Clinical Psychology},
  title    = {Principles underlying the use of multiple informants' reports},
  year     = {2013},
  number   = {1},
  pages    = {123–149},
  volume   = {9},
  abstract = {Researchers use multiple informants' reports to assess and examine behavior. However, informants' reports commonly disagree. Informants' reports often disagree in their perceived levels of a behavior (“low” versus “elevated” mood), and examining multiple reports in a single study often results in inconsistent findings. Although researchers often espouse taking a multi-informant assessment approach, they frequently address informant discrepancies using techniques that treat discrepancies as measurement error. Yet, recent work indicates that researchers in a variety of fields often may be unable to justify treating informant discrepancies as measurement error. In this review, the authors advance a framework (Operations Triad Model) outlining general principles for using and interpreting informants' reports. Using the framework, researchers can test whether or not they can extract meaningful information about behavior from discrepancies among multiple informants' reports. The authors provide supportive evidence for this framework and discuss its implications for hypothesis testing, study design, and quantitative review.},
  doi      = {10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-050212-185617},
  keywords = {converging operations,diverging operations,compensating operations,informant discrepancies,Operations Triad Model},
  url      = {https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-050212-185617},
}

﻿
@Book{Makol2025,
  author    = {Makol, Bridget A. and Yang, Junhui and Wang, Mo and De Los Reyes, Andres},
  publisher = {Springer Nature Switzerland},
  title     = {Youth development in context: {Integrating} multiple informants to assess behavior},
  year      = {2025},
  address   = {Cham, Switzerland},
  abstract  = {This chapter provides an overview of the book, including detailed information on the state of the science on discrepant results in assessments of youth behavior, theoretical models to explain these discrepancies, and how these theories link to approaches developed to integrate assessment data.},
  doi       = {10.1007/978-3-031-80549-3},
}

﻿
@Article{McDermott2013,
  author   = {McDermott, Paul A. and Watkins, Marley W. and Rovine, Michael J. and Rikoon, Samuel H.},
  journal  = {Journal of School Psychology},
  title    = {Assessing changes in socioemotional adjustment across early school transitions―{New} national scales for children at risk},
  year     = {2013},
  number   = {1},
  pages    = {97–115},
  volume   = {51},
  abstract = {This article reports the development and evidence for validity and application of the Adjustment Scales for Early Transition in Schooling (ASETS). Based on primary analyses of data from the Head Start Impact Study, a nationally representative sample (N=3077) of randomly selected children from low-income households is configured to inform developmental–transitional stability and change in socioemotional adjustment. Longitudinal exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis of the ASETS revealed behavioral dimensions of Aggression, Attention Seeking, Reticence/Withdrawal, Low Energy, and higher-order dimensions of Overactivity and Underactivity. Each dimension was vertically equated through IRT, with Bayesian scoring across 2years of prekindergarten, kindergarten, and 1st grade. Multilevel modeling provides evidence for concurrent validity, assessment of future risk, and detection of differential growth trajectories across the 4years of early school transition.},
  doi      = {10.1016/j.jsp.2012.10.002},
  keywords = {Early childhood Preschool education Head Start Behavioral adjustment Item response theory Transition},
  url      = {http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022440512000854},
}

﻿
@Article{Hosch2022,
  author  = {Hosch, Alexis and Oleson, Jacob J. and Harris, Jordan L. and Goeltz, Mary Taylor and Neumann, Tabea and LeBeau, Brandon and Hazeltine, Eliot and Petersen, Isaac T.},
  journal = {Developmental Science},
  title   = {Studying children’s growth in self-regulation using changing measures to account for heterotypic continuity: {A} {Bayesian} approach to developmental scaling},
  year    = {2022},
  note    = {https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/y82ua},
  number  = {6},
  pages   = {e13280},
  volume  = {25},
  doi     = {10.1111/desc.13280},
}

﻿
@Article{Petersen2022,
  author  = {Petersen, Isaac T. and LeBeau, Brandon},
  journal = {Journal of Psychopathology and Clinical Science},
  title   = {Creating a developmental scale to chart the development of psychopathology with different informants and measures across time},
  year    = {2022},
  number  = {6},
  pages   = {611–625},
  volume  = {131},
  doi     = {10.1037/abn0000649},
}

﻿
@InBook{McArdle2011,
  author    = {McArdle, John J. and Grimm, Kevin J.},
  editor    = {von Davier, Alina A.},
  pages     = {71–88},
  publisher = {Springer Science & Business Media},
  title     = {An empirical example of change analysis by linking longitudinal item response data from multiple tests},
  year      = {2011},
  address   = {New York, NY, US},
  series    = {Statistics for Social Science and Public Policy},
  abstract  = {Linking, equating, and calibrating refer to a series of statistical methods for comparing scores from tests (scales, measures, etc.) that do not contain the same exact set of measurements but presume to measure the same underlying construct. Lord (1955a,1955b) provided one of the first examples of this kind where one test (x) was administered to 1,200 people, while two other tests (y 1 & y 2 ) were each only administered to a different half of the group. The resulting data and analysis were reprinted in Cudeck (2000), who showed that the assumption of a single factor model for all three tests (x, y 1 , y 2 ) made it possible to identify a maximum likelihood estimator of the correlation among the two variables that were never measured on the same persons (y 1 & y 2 ). In contemporary terms the common score (x) served as an anchor for the correlation of the other two scores, and this simple design is one version of what is termed a nonequivalent anchor test (von Davier, Holland, & Thayer,2004b).},
  booktitle = {Statistical models for test equating, scaling, and linking},
  keywords  = {Education},
}

@Article{McArdle2009,
  author   = {McArdle, John J. and Grimm, Kevin J. and Hamagami, Fumiaki and Bowles, Ryan P. and Meredith, William},
  journal  = {Psychological Methods},
  title    = {Modeling life-span growth curves of cognition using longitudinal data with multiple samples and changing scales of measurement},
  year     = {2009},
  number   = {2},
  pages    = {126–149},
  volume   = {14},
  abstract = {The authors use multiple-sample longitudinal data from different test batteries to examine propositions about changes in constructs over the life span. The data come from 3 classic studies on intellectual abilities in which, in combination, 441 persons were repeatedly measured as many as 16 times over 70 years. They measured cognitive constructs of vocabulary and memory using 8 age-appropriate intelligence test batteries and explore possible linkage of these scales using item response theory (IRT). They simultaneously estimated the parameters of both IRT and latent curve models based on a joint model likelihood approach (i.e., NLMIXED and WINBUGS). They included group differences in the model to examine potential interindividual differences in levels and change. The resulting longitudinal invariant Rasch test analyses lead to a few new methodological suggestions for dealing with repeated constructs based on changing measurements in developmental studies. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)},
  doi      = {10.1037/a0015857},
  keywords = {latent curve analysis item response modeling changing longitudinal measurements life-span cognition multilevel item analysis},
}

﻿
@Article{Ward2022,
  author  = {Ward, Caitlin and Oleson, Jacob and Tomblin, J. Bruce and Walker, Elizabeth},
  journal = {Journal of Applied Statistics},
  title   = {Modeling population and subject-specific growth in a latent trait measured by multiple instruments over time using a hierarchical {Bayesian} framework},
  year    = {2022},
  number  = {2},
  pages   = {449–465},
  volume  = {49},
  doi     = {10.1080/02664763.2020.1817346},
}

﻿
@Article{McDaniel2023,
  author   = {McDaniel, Heather L. and Saavedra, Lissette M. and Morgan-López, Antonio A. and Bradshaw, Catherine P. and Lochman, John E. and Kaihoi, Chelsea A. and Powell, Nicole P. and Qu, Lixin and Yaros, Anna C.},
  journal  = {Prevention Science},
  title    = {Harmonizing social, emotional, and behavioral constructs in prevention science: {Digging} into the weeds of aligning disparate measures},
  year     = {2023},
  abstract = {While integrative data analysis (IDA) presents great opportunity, it also necessitates a myriad of methodological decisions related to harmonizing disparate measures collected across multiple studies. There is a lack of step-by-step methodological guidance for harmonizing disparate measures of latent constructs differently conceptualized or operationalized across studies, such as social, emotional, and behavioral constructs often utilized in prevention science. The current paper addressed this gap by providing methodological guidance and a case illustration focused on harmonizing measures of disparately conceptualized and operationalized constructs. We do so by outlining a five-phased harmonization approach paired with an illustrative example of the approach as applied to harmonization of broadband latent emotional and behavioral health constructs assessed with different measures across studies. This approach builds on and expands upon procedures currently recommended in the IDA literature with parallels to best practices in test development procedures. The illustrative example of our phased approach is drawn from an IDA study of 11 randomized controlled trials of Coping Power (Lochman & Wells, 2004), an evidence-based preventive intervention. We demonstrate the harmonization of two constructs, internalizing and externalizing problems, as harmonized across the teacher-reported scales of the Achenbach System of Empirically Based Assessment (Achenbach, 1991a) and the Behavior Assessment System for Children (Reynolds & Kamphaus, 2004). Finally, we consider the potential strengths and limitations of this phased approach, underscoring areas for future methodological research and conclude with some recommendations.},
  doi      = {10.1007/s11121-022-01467-0},
  url      = {https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-022-01467-0},
}

﻿
@Article{Curran2008,
  author  = {Curran, Patrick J. and Hussong, Andrea M. and Cai, L. and Huang, W. and Chassin, L. and Sher, K.J. and Zucker, R.A.},
  journal = {Developmental Psychology},
  title   = {Pooling data from multiple longitudinal studies: {The} role of item response theory in integrative data analysis},
  year    = {2008},
  number  = {2},
  pages   = {365},
  volume  = {44},
  doi     = {10.1037/0012-1649.44.2.365},
}

﻿
@Article{Student2025,
  author   = {Student, Sanford R.},
  journal  = {Journal of Educational Measurement},
  title    = {Vertical scaling with moderated nonlinear factor analysis},
  year     = {2025},
  number   = {4},
  pages    = {929–958},
  volume   = {62},
  abstract = {Abstract Vertical scales are intended to establish a common metric for scores on test forms targeting different levels of development in a specified domain. They are often constructed using common item, nonequivalent group designs that implicitly rely on the linking items being effectively free from differential item functioning (DIF) or the DIF being symmetric to produce unbiased linking constants. Moderated Nonlinear Factor Analysis (MNLFA) is a measurement model that can be used to understand both the presence of DIF among vertical scale common items and the extent to which the presence of DIF may affect grade-to-grade score distributions. Monte Carlo simulation and synthetic data applications show how models that do and do not account for DIF in vertical scale common items can produce meaningfully different answers to the fundamental question of how much students grow from one grade to the next, but that when DIF is not present, MNLFA provides effectively identical growth estimates to traditional concurrent and characteristic curve approaches to vertical linking.},
  doi      = {10.1111/jedm.70019},
  url      = {https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/jedm.70019},
}

﻿
@Article{Weeks2018,
  author   = {Weeks, Jonathan P.},
  journal  = {Measurement: Interdisciplinary Research and Perspectives},
  title    = {An application of multidimensional vertical scaling},
  year     = {2018},
  note     = {Weeks, Jonathan P. 1; Email Address: jweeks@ets.org; Affiliation: 1: Educational Testing Service; Source Info: Jul-Sep2018, Vol. 16 Issue 3, p139; Subject Term: MULTIDIMENSIONAL scaling; Subject Term: READING comprehension; Subject Term: EDUCATIONAL tests & measurements; Author-Supplied Keyword: Multidimensional vertical scaling; Author-Supplied Keyword: reading comprehension; Author-Supplied Keyword: value-added subscores; Number of Pages: 16p; Document Type: Article},
  number   = {3},
  pages    = {139–154},
  volume   = {16},
  abstract = {Vertical scales are widely used in educational assessment as a basis for considering grade-to-grade changes in student performance. Typically, the underlying construct is assumed to be essentially unidimensional; however, if there is a change in the measured construct across grades, this assumption may be untenable. Developing a multidimensional vertical scale in these instances provides a potential solution to this problem. This paper uses empirical data from four parallel forms of a test designed to measure six foundational reading skills-administered to students in grades 6-9-to address issues in the development of a multidimensional vertical scale. The defensibility of the multidimensional structure, value-added subscores, and the stability of the scale are considered. Student growth based on unidimensional versus multidimensional estimates of ability is also presented with particular attention to implications associated with potential construct shift. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]
Copyright of Measurement is the property of Taylor & Francis Ltd and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)},
  doi      = {10.1080/15366367.2018.1502005},
  keywords = {MULTIDIMENSIONAL scaling READING comprehension EDUCATIONAL tests & measurements Multidimensional vertical scaling value-added subscores},
  url      = {https://proxyiub.uits.iu.edu/login?url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=131751897&site=ehost-live&scope=site},
}

﻿
@Article{Murayama2013,
  author   = {Murayama, Kou and Pekrun, Reinhard and Lichtenfeld, Stephanie and vom Hofe, Rudolf},
  journal  = {Child Development},
  title    = {Predicting long-term growth in students' mathematics achievement: {The} unique contributions of motivation and cognitive strategies},
  year     = {2013},
  number   = {4},
  pages    = {1475–1490},
  volume   = {84},
  abstract = {This research examined how motivation (perceived control, intrinsic motivation, and extrinsic motivation), cognitive learning strategies (deep and surface strategies), and intelligence jointly predict long-term growth in students' mathematics achievement over 5 years. Using longitudinal data from six annual waves (Grades 5 through 10; Mage = 11.7 years at baseline; N = 3,530), latent growth curve modeling was employed to analyze growth in achievement. Results showed that the initial level of achievement was strongly related to intelligence, with motivation and cognitive strategies explaining additional variance. In contrast, intelligence had no relation with the growth of achievement over years, whereas motivation and learning strategies were predictors of growth. These findings highlight the importance of motivation and learning strategies in facilitating adolescents' development of mathematical competencies.},
  doi      = {10.1111/cdev.12036},
  url      = {https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/cdev.12036},
}

﻿
@Article{Petscher2018,
  author   = {Petscher, Yaacov and Justice, Laura M. and Hogan, Tiffany},
  journal  = {Child Development},
  title    = {Modeling the early language trajectory of language development when the measures change and its relation to poor reading comprehension},
  year     = {2018},
  number   = {6},
  pages    = {2136–2156},
  volume   = {89},
  abstract = {This study examined change in early language comprehension from 15 to 54 months for fifth-grade typical readers (n = 35), poor decoders (n = 11), or poor comprehenders (n = 16) from a nationally representative study of early child-care experiences. Changing measures of language comprehension were captured across early childhood for the 62 children. Multiple-group quasi-simplex and latent growth models were used on rank-transformed outcomes to examine children's relative rank change. Results showed that future poor comprehenders significantly declined in language comprehension over time relative to others who gradually improved. Efforts to improve language skills as a means to improve reading comprehension hinge upon the perspective that language weaknesses are a causal contributor to reading difficulties.},
  doi      = {10.1111/cdev.12880},
  url      = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12880},
}

﻿
@Article{Moeller2015,
  author   = {Moeller, Julia},
  journal  = {Frontiers in Psychology},
  title    = {A word on standardization in longitudinal studies: {Don't}},
  year     = {2015},
  number   = {1389},
  pages    = {1–4},
  volume   = {6},
  doi      = {10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01389},
  keywords = {standardization,Ipsatization,longitudinal data,latent profile analysis,Experience Sampling Method (ESM).},
  url      = {http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01389},
}

﻿
@Article{Oleson2016,
  author   = {Oleson, Jacob J. and Cavanaugh, Joseph E and Tomblin, J. Bruce and Walker, Elizabeth and Dunn, Camille},
  journal  = {Statistical Methods in Medical Research},
  title    = {Combining growth curves when a longitudinal study switches measurement tools},
  year     = {2016},
  number   = {6},
  pages    = {2925–2938},
  volume   = {25},
  abstract = {When longitudinal studies are performed to investigate the growth of traits in children, the measurement tool being used to quantify the trait may need to change as the subjects’ age throughout the study. Changing the measurement tool at some point in the longitudinal study makes the analysis of that growth challenging which, in turn, makes it difficult to determine what other factors influence the growth rate. We developed a Bayesian hierarchical modeling framework that relates the growth curves per individual for each of the different measurement tools and allows for covariates to influence the shapes of the curves by borrowing strength across curves. The method is motivated by and demonstrated by speech perception outcome measurements of children who were implanted with cochlear implants. Researchers are interested in assessing the impact of age at implantation and comparing the growth rates of children who are implanted under the age of two versus those implanted between the ages of two and four.},
  doi      = {10.1177/0962280214534588},
  keywords = {Bayesian,cochlear implant,hierarchical models,missing data,nonlinear,speech perception},
  url      = {https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0962280214534588},
}

﻿
@Article{Frick2004,
  author   = {Frick, Paul J. and Morris, Amanda Sheffield},
  journal  = {Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology},
  title    = {Temperament and developmental pathways to conduct problems},
  year     = {2004},
  note     = {doi: 10.1207/S15374424JCCP3301_6},
  number   = {1},
  pages    = {54–68},
  volume   = {33},
  abstract = {This article reviews research linking a number of temperamental vulnerabilities to the development of severe conduct problems in children. Also reviewed are 2 areas of research that focus on important developmental processes that could mediate the relation between temperament and conduct problems. These processes are the development of emotional regulatory abilities and the development of the affective components of conscience. Both of these processes have been associated with certain temperamental vulnerabilities, and they can both place a child at risk for the development of conduct problems. Importantly, these 2 processes may designate children who develop conduct problems through distinct causal pathways and, as a result, could help to explain some of the subtypes of antisocial youth reported in past research.},
  doi      = {10.1207/S15374424JCCP3301_6},
  url      = {https://doi.org/10.1207/S15374424JCCP3301_6},
}

﻿
@InBook{Bates2014,
  author    = {Bates, John E. and Schermerhorn, Alice C. and Petersen, Isaac T.},
  chapter   = {16},
  editor    = {Rudolph, Karen and Lewis, Michael},
  pages     = {311–329},
  publisher = {Springer},
  title     = {Temperament concepts in developmental psychopathology},
  year      = {2014},
  address   = {New York, NY, US},
  edition   = {3rd},
  booktitle = {Handbook of developmental psychopathology},
  doi       = {10.1007/978-1-4614-9608-3_16},
}

﻿
@Article{Aiken2018,
  author   = {Aiken, Alexandra and Clare, Philip J. and Wadolowski, Monika and Hutchinson, Delyse and Najman, Jackob M. and Slade, Tim and Bruno, Raimondo and McBride, Nyanda and Kypri, Kypros and Mattick, Richard P.},
  journal  = {Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research},
  title    = {Age of alcohol initiation and progression to binge drinking in adolescence: {A} prospective cohort study},
  year     = {2018},
  number   = {1},
  pages    = {100–110},
  volume   = {42},
  abstract = {Background Early alcohol initiation is common and has been associated with the development of alcohol problems. Yet, past research on the association of age of initiation with later problem drinking has produced inconsistent findings. Using prospective data from the Australian Parental Supply of Alcohol Longitudinal Study cohort, this study examined age of alcohol initiation, and of first drunkenness, and associations with subsequent drinking in adolescence. Methods A total of 1,673 parent–child dyads recruited through Australian secondary schools completed annual surveys for 5 years (grades 7 to 11). Limiting the sample to those adolescents who had initiated alcohol use by age 17 (n = 839), multinomial logistic regression models were used to examine associations between (i) age of initiation to alcohol use (consuming at least 1 full serve) and (ii) age of first drunkenness, and 2 outcomes: (i) binge drinking (consuming >4 standard drinks on a single occasion), and (ii) the total number of alcoholic drinks consumed in the past year, adjusted for a range of potential child, parent, family, and peer covariates. Results Fifty percent of adolescents reported alcohol use and 36\% reported bingeing at wave 5 (mean age 16.9 years), and the mean age of initiation to alcohol use for drinkers was 15.1 years. Age of initiation was significantly associated with binge drinking and total quantity of alcohol consumed in unadjusted and adjusted models. Age of first drunkenness was associated with total quantity of alcohol consumed in unadjusted models but not adjusted models and was not associated with subsequent bingeing. Conclusions Initiating alcohol use earlier in adolescence is associated with an increased risk of binge drinking and higher quantity of consumption in late secondary school, supporting an argument for delaying alcohol initiation for as long as possible to reduce the risk for problematic use in later adolescence and the alcohol-related harms that may accompany this use.},
  doi      = {10.1111/acer.13525},
  url      = {https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/acer.13525},
}

@Comment{jabref-meta: databaseType:bibtex;}
